integer.cpp

/* Copyright (c) 2005, 2012, Oracle and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved.

   This program is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify
   it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
   the Free Software Foundation; version 2 of the License.

   This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
   but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
   MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the
   GNU General Public License for more details.

   You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
   along with this program; if not, write to the Free Software
   Foundation, Inc., 51 Franklin Street, Fifth Floor, Boston, MA 02110-1301, USA */

/* based on Wei Dai's integer.cpp from CryptoPP */

#include "runtime.hpp"
#include "integer.hpp"
#include "modarith.hpp"
#include "asn.hpp"



#ifdef __DECCXX
    #include <c_asm.h>  // for asm overflow assembly
#endif

#if defined(_M_X64) || defined(_M_IA64)
    #include <intrin.h> 
#pragma intrinsic(_umul128)
#endif


#ifdef __GNUC__
    #include <signal.h>
    #include <setjmp.h>
#endif


#ifdef SSE2_INTRINSICS_AVAILABLE
    #ifdef __GNUC__
        #include <xmmintrin.h>
        #ifdef TAOCRYPT_MEMALIGN_AVAILABLE
            #include <malloc.h>
        #else
            #include <stdlib.h>
        #endif
    #else
        #include <emmintrin.h>
    #endif
#elif defined(_MSC_VER) && defined(_M_IX86)
    #pragma message("You do not seem to have the Visual C++ Processor Pack ")
    #pragma message("installed, so use of SSE2 intrinsics will be disabled.")
#elif defined(__GNUC__) && defined(__i386__)
/*   #warning You do not have GCC 3.3 or later, or did not specify the -msse2 \
             compiler option. Use of SSE2 intrinsics will be disabled.
*/
#endif


namespace TaoCrypt {


#ifdef SSE2_INTRINSICS_AVAILABLE

template <class T>
CPP_TYPENAME AlignedAllocator<T>::pointer AlignedAllocator<T>::allocate(
                                           size_type n, const void *)
{
    if (n > max_size())
        return 0;
    if (n == 0)
        return 0;
    if (n >= 4)
    {
        void* p;
    #ifdef TAOCRYPT_MM_MALLOC_AVAILABLE
        p = _mm_malloc(sizeof(T)*n, 16);
    #elif defined(TAOCRYPT_MEMALIGN_AVAILABLE)
        p = memalign(16, sizeof(T)*n);
    #elif defined(TAOCRYPT_MALLOC_ALIGNMENT_IS_16)
        p = malloc(sizeof(T)*n);
    #else
        p = (byte *)malloc(sizeof(T)*n + 8);
        // assume malloc alignment is at least 8
    #endif

    #ifdef TAOCRYPT_NO_ALIGNED_ALLOC
        m_pBlock = p;
        if (!IsAlignedOn(p, 16))
        {
            p = (byte *)p + 8;
        }
    #endif

        return (T*)p;
    }
    return NEW_TC T[n];
}


template <class T>
void AlignedAllocator<T>::deallocate(void* p, size_type n)
{
    memset(p, 0, n*sizeof(T));
    if (n >= 4)
    {
        #ifdef TAOCRYPT_MM_MALLOC_AVAILABLE
            _mm_free(p);
        #elif defined(TAOCRYPT_NO_ALIGNED_ALLOC)
            free(m_pBlock);
            m_pBlock = 0;
        #else
            free(p);
        #endif
    }
    else
        tcArrayDelete((T *)p);
}

#endif  // SSE2


// ********  start of integer needs

// start 5.2.1 adds DWord and Word ********

// ********************************************************

class DWord {
public:
DWord() {}

#ifdef TAOCRYPT_NATIVE_DWORD_AVAILABLE
    explicit DWord(word low)
    {
        whole_ = low;
    }
#else
    explicit DWord(word low)
    {
        halfs_.low = low;
        halfs_.high = 0;
    }
#endif

    DWord(word low, word high)
    {
        halfs_.low = low;
        halfs_.high = high;
    }

    static DWord Multiply(word a, word b)
    {
        DWord r;

        #ifdef TAOCRYPT_NATIVE_DWORD_AVAILABLE
            r.whole_ = (dword)a * b;

        #elif defined(_M_X64) || defined(_M_IA64)
            r.halfs_.low = _umul128(a, b, &r.halfs_.high);

        #elif defined(__alpha__)
            r.halfs_.low = a*b;
            #ifdef __GNUC__
                __asm__("umulh %1,%2,%0" : "=r" (r.halfs_.high)
                    : "r" (a), "r" (b));
            #elif defined(__DECCXX)
                r.halfs_.high = asm("umulh %a0, %a1, %v0", a, b);
            #else
                #error unknown alpha compiler
            #endif

        #elif defined(__ia64__)
            r.halfs_.low = a*b;
            __asm__("xmpy.hu %0=%1,%2" : "=f" (r.halfs_.high)
                : "f" (a), "f" (b));

        #elif defined(_ARCH_PPC64)
            r.halfs_.low = a*b;
            __asm__("mulhdu %0,%1,%2" : "=r" (r.halfs_.high)
                : "r" (a), "r" (b) : "cc");

        #elif defined(__x86_64__)
            __asm__("mulq %3" : "=d" (r.halfs_.high), "=a" (r.halfs_.low) :
                "a" (a), "rm" (b) : "cc");

        #elif defined(__mips64)
            __asm__("dmultu %2,%3" : "=h" (r.halfs_.high), "=l" (r.halfs_.low)
                : "r" (a), "r" (b));

        #elif defined(_M_IX86)
            // for testing
            word64 t = (word64)a * b;
            r.halfs_.high = ((word32 *)(&t))[1];
            r.halfs_.low = (word32)t;
        #else
            #error can not implement DWord
        #endif

        return r;
    }

    static DWord MultiplyAndAdd(word a, word b, word c)
    {
        DWord r = Multiply(a, b);
        return r += c;
    }

    DWord & operator+=(word a)
    {
        #ifdef TAOCRYPT_NATIVE_DWORD_AVAILABLE
            whole_ = whole_ + a;
        #else
            halfs_.low += a;
            halfs_.high += (halfs_.low < a);
        #endif
        return *this;
    }

    DWord operator+(word a)
    {
        DWord r;
        #ifdef TAOCRYPT_NATIVE_DWORD_AVAILABLE
            r.whole_ = whole_ + a;
        #else
            r.halfs_.low = halfs_.low + a;
            r.halfs_.high = halfs_.high + (r.halfs_.low < a);
        #endif
        return r;
    }

    DWord operator-(DWord a)
    {
        DWord r;
        #ifdef TAOCRYPT_NATIVE_DWORD_AVAILABLE
            r.whole_ = whole_ - a.whole_;
        #else
            r.halfs_.low = halfs_.low - a.halfs_.low;
            r.halfs_.high = halfs_.high - a.halfs_.high -
                             (r.halfs_.low > halfs_.low);
        #endif
        return r;
    }

    DWord operator-(word a)
    {
        DWord r;
        #ifdef TAOCRYPT_NATIVE_DWORD_AVAILABLE
            r.whole_ = whole_ - a;
        #else
            r.halfs_.low = halfs_.low - a;
            r.halfs_.high = halfs_.high - (r.halfs_.low > halfs_.low);
        #endif
        return r;
    }

    // returns quotient, which must fit in a word
    word operator/(word divisor);

    word operator%(word a);

    bool operator!() const
    {
    #ifdef TAOCRYPT_NATIVE_DWORD_AVAILABLE
        return !whole_;
    #else
        return !halfs_.high && !halfs_.low;
    #endif
    }

    word GetLowHalf() const {return halfs_.low;}
    word GetHighHalf() const {return halfs_.high;}
    word GetHighHalfAsBorrow() const {return 0-halfs_.high;}

private:
    struct dword_struct
        {
        #ifdef LITTLE_ENDIAN_ORDER
            word low;
            word high;
        #else
            word high;
            word low;
        #endif
    };

    union
    {
    #ifdef TAOCRYPT_NATIVE_DWORD_AVAILABLE
        dword whole_;
    #endif
        struct dword_struct halfs_;
    };
};


class Word {
public:
    Word() {}

    Word(word value)
    {
        whole_ = value;
    }

    Word(hword low, hword high)
    {
        whole_ = low | (word(high) << (WORD_BITS/2));
    }

    static Word Multiply(hword a, hword b)
    {
        Word r;
        r.whole_ = (word)a * b;
        return r;
    }

    Word operator-(Word a)
    {
        Word r;
        r.whole_ = whole_ - a.whole_;
        return r;
    }

    Word operator-(hword a)
    {
        Word r;
        r.whole_ = whole_ - a;
        return r;
    }

    // returns quotient, which must fit in a word
    hword operator/(hword divisor)
    {
        return hword(whole_ / divisor);
    }

    bool operator!() const
    {
        return !whole_;
    }

    word GetWhole() const {return whole_;}
    hword GetLowHalf() const {return hword(whole_);}
    hword GetHighHalf() const {return hword(whole_>>(WORD_BITS/2));}
    hword GetHighHalfAsBorrow() const {return 0-hword(whole_>>(WORD_BITS/2));}

private:
    word whole_;
};


// dummy is VC60 compiler bug workaround
// do a 3 word by 2 word divide, returns quotient and leaves remainder in A
template <class S, class D>
S DivideThreeWordsByTwo(S* A, S B0, S B1, D* dummy_VC6_WorkAround = 0)
{
    // estimate the quotient: do a 2 S by 1 S divide
    S Q;
    if (S(B1+1) == 0)
        Q = A[2];
    else
        Q = D(A[1], A[2]) / S(B1+1);

    // now subtract Q*B from A
    D p = D::Multiply(B0, Q);
    D u = (D) A[0] - p.GetLowHalf();
    A[0] = u.GetLowHalf();
    u = (D) A[1] - p.GetHighHalf() - u.GetHighHalfAsBorrow() - 
            D::Multiply(B1, Q);
    A[1] = u.GetLowHalf();
    A[2] += u.GetHighHalf();

    // Q <= actual quotient, so fix it
    while (A[2] || A[1] > B1 || (A[1]==B1 && A[0]>=B0))
    {
        u = (D) A[0] - B0;
        A[0] = u.GetLowHalf();
        u = (D) A[1] - B1 - u.GetHighHalfAsBorrow();
        A[1] = u.GetLowHalf();
        A[2] += u.GetHighHalf();
        Q++;
    }

    return Q;
}


// do a 4 word by 2 word divide, returns 2 word quotient in Q0 and Q1
template <class S, class D>
inline D DivideFourWordsByTwo(S *T, const D &Al, const D &Ah, const D &B)
{
    if (!B) // if divisor is 0, we assume divisor==2**(2*WORD_BITS)
        return D(Ah.GetLowHalf(), Ah.GetHighHalf());
    else
    {
        S Q[2];
        T[0] = Al.GetLowHalf();
        T[1] = Al.GetHighHalf(); 
        T[2] = Ah.GetLowHalf();
        T[3] = Ah.GetHighHalf();
        Q[1] = DivideThreeWordsByTwo<S, D>(T+1, B.GetLowHalf(),
                                                B.GetHighHalf());
        Q[0] = DivideThreeWordsByTwo<S, D>(T, B.GetLowHalf(), B.GetHighHalf());
        return D(Q[0], Q[1]);
    }
}


// returns quotient, which must fit in a word
inline word DWord::operator/(word a)
{
    #ifdef TAOCRYPT_NATIVE_DWORD_AVAILABLE
        return word(whole_ / a);
    #else
        hword r[4];
        return DivideFourWordsByTwo<hword, Word>(r, halfs_.low,
                                                    halfs_.high, a).GetWhole();
    #endif
}

inline word DWord::operator%(word a)
{
    #ifdef TAOCRYPT_NATIVE_DWORD_AVAILABLE
        return word(whole_ % a);
    #else
        if (a < (word(1) << (WORD_BITS/2)))
        {
            hword h = hword(a);
            word r = halfs_.high % h;
            r = ((halfs_.low >> (WORD_BITS/2)) + (r << (WORD_BITS/2))) % h;
            return hword((hword(halfs_.low) + (r << (WORD_BITS/2))) % h);
        }
        else
        {
            hword r[4];
            DivideFourWordsByTwo<hword, Word>(r, halfs_.low, halfs_.high, a);
            return Word(r[0], r[1]).GetWhole();
        }
    #endif
}



// end 5.2.1 DWord and Word adds





static const unsigned int RoundupSizeTable[] = {2, 2, 2, 4, 4, 8, 8, 8, 8};

static inline unsigned int RoundupSize(unsigned int n)
{
    if (n<=8)
        return RoundupSizeTable[n];
    else if (n<=16)
        return 16;
    else if (n<=32)
        return 32;
    else if (n<=64)
        return 64;
    else return 1U << BitPrecision(n-1);
}


static int Compare(const word *A, const word *B, unsigned int N)
{
    while (N--)
        if (A[N] > B[N])
            return 1;
        else if (A[N] < B[N])
            return -1;

    return 0;
}

static word Increment(word *A, unsigned int N, word B=1)
{
    word t = A[0];
    A[0] = t+B;
    if (A[0] >= t)
        return 0;
    for (unsigned i=1; i<N; i++)
        if (++A[i])
            return 0;
    return 1;
}

static word Decrement(word *A, unsigned int N, word B=1)
{
    word t = A[0];
    A[0] = t-B;
    if (A[0] <= t)
        return 0;
    for (unsigned i=1; i<N; i++)
        if (A[i]--)
            return 0;
    return 1;
}

static void TwosComplement(word *A, unsigned int N)
{
    Decrement(A, N);
    for (unsigned i=0; i<N; i++)
        A[i] = ~A[i];
}


static word LinearMultiply(word *C, const word *A, word B, unsigned int N)
{
    word carry=0;
    for(unsigned i=0; i<N; i++)
    {
        DWord p = DWord::MultiplyAndAdd(A[i], B, carry);
        C[i] = p.GetLowHalf();
        carry = p.GetHighHalf();
    }
    return carry;
}


static word AtomicInverseModPower2(word A)
{
    word R=A%8;

    for (unsigned i=3; i<WORD_BITS; i*=2)
        R = R*(2-R*A);

    return R;
}


// ********************************************************

class Portable
{
public:
    static word TAOCRYPT_CDECL Add(word *C, const word *A, const word *B,
                                   unsigned int N);
    static word TAOCRYPT_CDECL Subtract(word *C, const word *A, const word*B,
                                        unsigned int N);
    static void TAOCRYPT_CDECL Multiply2(word *C, const word *A, const word *B);
    static word TAOCRYPT_CDECL Multiply2Add(word *C,
                                            const word *A, const word *B);
    static void TAOCRYPT_CDECL Multiply4(word *C, const word *A, const word *B);
    static void TAOCRYPT_CDECL Multiply8(word *C, const word *A, const word *B);
    static unsigned int TAOCRYPT_CDECL MultiplyRecursionLimit() {return 8;}

    static void TAOCRYPT_CDECL Multiply2Bottom(word *C, const word *A,
                                               const word *B);
    static void TAOCRYPT_CDECL Multiply4Bottom(word *C, const word *A,
                                               const word *B);
    static void TAOCRYPT_CDECL Multiply8Bottom(word *C, const word *A,
                                               const word *B);
    static unsigned int TAOCRYPT_CDECL MultiplyBottomRecursionLimit(){return 8;}

    static void TAOCRYPT_CDECL Square2(word *R, const word *A);
    static void TAOCRYPT_CDECL Square4(word *R, const word *A);
    static unsigned int TAOCRYPT_CDECL SquareRecursionLimit() {return 4;}
};

word Portable::Add(word *C, const word *A, const word *B, unsigned int N)
{
    DWord u(0, 0);
    for (unsigned int i = 0; i < N; i+=2)
    {
        u = DWord(A[i]) + B[i] + u.GetHighHalf();
        C[i] = u.GetLowHalf();
        u = DWord(A[i+1]) + B[i+1] + u.GetHighHalf();
        C[i+1] = u.GetLowHalf();
    }
    return u.GetHighHalf();
}

word Portable::Subtract(word *C, const word *A, const word *B, unsigned int N)
{
    DWord u(0, 0);
    for (unsigned int i = 0; i < N; i+=2)
    {
        u = (DWord) A[i] - B[i] - u.GetHighHalfAsBorrow();
        C[i] = u.GetLowHalf();
        u = (DWord) A[i+1] - B[i+1] - u.GetHighHalfAsBorrow();
        C[i+1] = u.GetLowHalf();
    }
    return 0-u.GetHighHalf();
}

void Portable::Multiply2(word *C, const word *A, const word *B)
{
/*
    word s;
    dword d;

    if (A1 >= A0)
        if (B0 >= B1)
        {
            s = 0;
            d = (dword)(A1-A0)*(B0-B1);
        }
        else
        {
            s = (A1-A0);
            d = (dword)s*(word)(B0-B1);
        }
    else
        if (B0 > B1)
        {
            s = (B0-B1);
            d = (word)(A1-A0)*(dword)s;
        }
        else
        {
            s = 0;
            d = (dword)(A0-A1)*(B1-B0);
        }
*/
    // this segment is the branchless equivalent of above
    word D[4] = {A[1]-A[0], A[0]-A[1], B[0]-B[1], B[1]-B[0]};
    unsigned int ai = A[1] < A[0];
    unsigned int bi = B[0] < B[1];
    unsigned int di = ai & bi;
    DWord d = DWord::Multiply(D[di], D[di+2]);
    D[1] = D[3] = 0;
    unsigned int si = ai + !bi;
    word s = D[si];

    DWord A0B0 = DWord::Multiply(A[0], B[0]);
    C[0] = A0B0.GetLowHalf();

    DWord A1B1 = DWord::Multiply(A[1], B[1]);
    DWord t = (DWord) A0B0.GetHighHalf() + A0B0.GetLowHalf() + d.GetLowHalf()
                       + A1B1.GetLowHalf();
    C[1] = t.GetLowHalf();

    t = A1B1 + t.GetHighHalf() + A0B0.GetHighHalf() + d.GetHighHalf()
             + A1B1.GetHighHalf() - s;
    C[2] = t.GetLowHalf();
    C[3] = t.GetHighHalf();
}

void Portable::Multiply2Bottom(word *C, const word *A, const word *B)
{
    DWord t = DWord::Multiply(A[0], B[0]);
    C[0] = t.GetLowHalf();
    C[1] = t.GetHighHalf() + A[0]*B[1] + A[1]*B[0];
}

word Portable::Multiply2Add(word *C, const word *A, const word *B)
{
    word D[4] = {A[1]-A[0], A[0]-A[1], B[0]-B[1], B[1]-B[0]};
    unsigned int ai = A[1] < A[0];
    unsigned int bi = B[0] < B[1];
    unsigned int di = ai & bi;
    DWord d = DWord::Multiply(D[di], D[di+2]);
    D[1] = D[3] = 0;
    unsigned int si = ai + !bi;
    word s = D[si];

    DWord A0B0 = DWord::Multiply(A[0], B[0]);
    DWord t = A0B0 + C[0];
    C[0] = t.GetLowHalf();

    DWord A1B1 = DWord::Multiply(A[1], B[1]);
    t = (DWord) t.GetHighHalf() + A0B0.GetLowHalf() + d.GetLowHalf() +
        A1B1.GetLowHalf() + C[1];
    C[1] = t.GetLowHalf();

    t = (DWord) t.GetHighHalf() + A1B1.GetLowHalf() + A0B0.GetHighHalf() +
        d.GetHighHalf() + A1B1.GetHighHalf() - s + C[2];
    C[2] = t.GetLowHalf();

    t = (DWord) t.GetHighHalf() + A1B1.GetHighHalf() + C[3];
    C[3] = t.GetLowHalf();
    return t.GetHighHalf();
}


#define MulAcc(x, y)                                \
    p = DWord::MultiplyAndAdd(A[x], B[y], c);       \
    c = p.GetLowHalf();                             \
    p = (DWord) d + p.GetHighHalf();                \
    d = p.GetLowHalf();                             \
    e += p.GetHighHalf();

#define SaveMulAcc(s, x, y)                         \
    R[s] = c;                                       \
    p = DWord::MultiplyAndAdd(A[x], B[y], d);       \
    c = p.GetLowHalf();                             \
    p = (DWord) e + p.GetHighHalf();                \
    d = p.GetLowHalf();                             \
    e = p.GetHighHalf();

#define SquAcc(x, y)                                \
    q = DWord::Multiply(A[x], A[y]);                \
    p = q + c;                                      \
    c = p.GetLowHalf();                             \
    p = (DWord) d + p.GetHighHalf();                \
    d = p.GetLowHalf();                             \
    e += p.GetHighHalf();                           \
    p = q + c;                                      \
    c = p.GetLowHalf();                             \
    p = (DWord) d + p.GetHighHalf();                \
    d = p.GetLowHalf();                             \
    e += p.GetHighHalf();

#define SaveSquAcc(s, x, y)                         \
    R[s] = c;                                       \
    q = DWord::Multiply(A[x], A[y]);                \
    p = q + d;                                      \
    c = p.GetLowHalf();                             \
    p = (DWord) e + p.GetHighHalf();                \
    d = p.GetLowHalf();                             \
    e = p.GetHighHalf();                            \
    p = q + c;                                      \
    c = p.GetLowHalf();                             \
    p = (DWord) d + p.GetHighHalf();                \
    d = p.GetLowHalf();                             \
    e += p.GetHighHalf();


void Portable::Multiply4(word *R, const word *A, const word *B)
{
    DWord p;
    word c, d, e;

    p = DWord::Multiply(A[0], B[0]);
    R[0] = p.GetLowHalf();
    c = p.GetHighHalf();
    d = e = 0;

    MulAcc(0, 1);
    MulAcc(1, 0);

    SaveMulAcc(1, 2, 0);
    MulAcc(1, 1);
    MulAcc(0, 2);

    SaveMulAcc(2, 0, 3);
    MulAcc(1, 2);
    MulAcc(2, 1);
    MulAcc(3, 0);

    SaveMulAcc(3, 3, 1);
    MulAcc(2, 2);
    MulAcc(1, 3);

    SaveMulAcc(4, 2, 3);
    MulAcc(3, 2);

    R[5] = c;
    p = DWord::MultiplyAndAdd(A[3], B[3], d);
    R[6] = p.GetLowHalf();
    R[7] = e + p.GetHighHalf();
}

void Portable::Square2(word *R, const word *A)
{
    DWord p, q;
    word c, d, e;

    p = DWord::Multiply(A[0], A[0]);
    R[0] = p.GetLowHalf();
    c = p.GetHighHalf();
    d = e = 0;

    SquAcc(0, 1);

    R[1] = c;
    p = DWord::MultiplyAndAdd(A[1], A[1], d);
    R[2] = p.GetLowHalf();
    R[3] = e + p.GetHighHalf();
}

void Portable::Square4(word *R, const word *A)
{
#ifdef _MSC_VER
    // VC60 workaround: MSVC 6.0 has an optimization bug that makes
    // (dword)A*B where either A or B has been cast to a dword before
    // very expensive. Revisit this function when this
    // bug is fixed.
    Multiply4(R, A, A);
#else
    const word *B = A;
    DWord p, q;
    word c, d, e;

    p = DWord::Multiply(A[0], A[0]);
    R[0] = p.GetLowHalf();
    c = p.GetHighHalf();
    d = e = 0;

    SquAcc(0, 1);

    SaveSquAcc(1, 2, 0);
    MulAcc(1, 1);

    SaveSquAcc(2, 0, 3);
    SquAcc(1, 2);

    SaveSquAcc(3, 3, 1);
    MulAcc(2, 2);

    SaveSquAcc(4, 2, 3);

    R[5] = c;
    p = DWord::MultiplyAndAdd(A[3], A[3], d);
    R[6] = p.GetLowHalf();
    R[7] = e + p.GetHighHalf();
#endif
}

void Portable::Multiply8(word *R, const word *A, const word *B)
{
    DWord p;
    word c, d, e;

    p = DWord::Multiply(A[0], B[0]);
    R[0] = p.GetLowHalf();
    c = p.GetHighHalf();
    d = e = 0;

    MulAcc(0, 1);
    MulAcc(1, 0);

    SaveMulAcc(1, 2, 0);
    MulAcc(1, 1);
    MulAcc(0, 2);

    SaveMulAcc(2, 0, 3);
    MulAcc(1, 2);
    MulAcc(2, 1);
    MulAcc(3, 0);

    SaveMulAcc(3, 0, 4);
    MulAcc(1, 3);
    MulAcc(2, 2);
    MulAcc(3, 1);
    MulAcc(4, 0);

    SaveMulAcc(4, 0, 5);
    MulAcc(1, 4);
    MulAcc(2, 3);
    MulAcc(3, 2);
    MulAcc(4, 1);
    MulAcc(5, 0);

    SaveMulAcc(5, 0, 6);
    MulAcc(1, 5);
    MulAcc(2, 4);
    MulAcc(3, 3);
    MulAcc(4, 2);
    MulAcc(5, 1);
    MulAcc(6, 0);

    SaveMulAcc(6, 0, 7);
    MulAcc(1, 6);
    MulAcc(2, 5);
    MulAcc(3, 4);
    MulAcc(4, 3);
    MulAcc(5, 2);
    MulAcc(6, 1);
    MulAcc(7, 0);

    SaveMulAcc(7, 1, 7);
    MulAcc(2, 6);
    MulAcc(3, 5);
    MulAcc(4, 4);
    MulAcc(5, 3);
    MulAcc(6, 2);
    MulAcc(7, 1);

    SaveMulAcc(8, 2, 7);
    MulAcc(3, 6);
    MulAcc(4, 5);
    MulAcc(5, 4);
    MulAcc(6, 3);
    MulAcc(7, 2);

    SaveMulAcc(9, 3, 7);
    MulAcc(4, 6);
    MulAcc(5, 5);
    MulAcc(6, 4);
    MulAcc(7, 3);

    SaveMulAcc(10, 4, 7);
    MulAcc(5, 6);
    MulAcc(6, 5);
    MulAcc(7, 4);

    SaveMulAcc(11, 5, 7);
    MulAcc(6, 6);
    MulAcc(7, 5);

    SaveMulAcc(12, 6, 7);
    MulAcc(7, 6);

    R[13] = c;
    p = DWord::MultiplyAndAdd(A[7], B[7], d);
    R[14] = p.GetLowHalf();
    R[15] = e + p.GetHighHalf();
}

void Portable::Multiply4Bottom(word *R, const word *A, const word *B)
{
    DWord p;
    word c, d, e;

    p = DWord::Multiply(A[0], B[0]);
    R[0] = p.GetLowHalf();
    c = p.GetHighHalf();
    d = e = 0;

    MulAcc(0, 1);
    MulAcc(1, 0);

    SaveMulAcc(1, 2, 0);
    MulAcc(1, 1);
    MulAcc(0, 2);

    R[2] = c;
    R[3] = d + A[0] * B[3] + A[1] * B[2] + A[2] * B[1] + A[3] * B[0];
}

void Portable::Multiply8Bottom(word *R, const word *A, const word *B)
{
    DWord p;
    word c, d, e;

    p = DWord::Multiply(A[0], B[0]);
    R[0] = p.GetLowHalf();
    c = p.GetHighHalf();
    d = e = 0;

    MulAcc(0, 1);
    MulAcc(1, 0);

    SaveMulAcc(1, 2, 0);
    MulAcc(1, 1);
    MulAcc(0, 2);

    SaveMulAcc(2, 0, 3);
    MulAcc(1, 2);
    MulAcc(2, 1);
    MulAcc(3, 0);

    SaveMulAcc(3, 0, 4);
    MulAcc(1, 3);
    MulAcc(2, 2);
    MulAcc(3, 1);
    MulAcc(4, 0);

    SaveMulAcc(4, 0, 5);
    MulAcc(1, 4);
    MulAcc(2, 3);
    MulAcc(3, 2);
    MulAcc(4, 1);
    MulAcc(5, 0);

    SaveMulAcc(5, 0, 6);
    MulAcc(1, 5);
    MulAcc(2, 4);
    MulAcc(3, 3);
    MulAcc(4, 2);
    MulAcc(5, 1);
    MulAcc(6, 0);

    R[6] = c;
    R[7] = d + A[0] * B[7] + A[1] * B[6] + A[2] * B[5] + A[3] * B[4] +
               A[4] * B[3] + A[5] * B[2] + A[6] * B[1] + A[7] * B[0];
}


#undef MulAcc
#undef SaveMulAcc
#undef SquAcc
#undef SaveSquAcc

// optimized

#ifdef TAOCRYPT_X86ASM_AVAILABLE

// ************** x86 feature detection ***************


#ifdef SSE2_INTRINSICS_AVAILABLE

#ifndef _MSC_VER
    static jmp_buf s_env;
    static void SigIllHandler(int)
    {
        longjmp(s_env, 1);
    }
#endif

static bool HasSSE2()
{
    if (!IsPentium())
        return false;

    word32 cpuid[4];
    CpuId(1, cpuid);
    if ((cpuid[3] & (1 << 26)) == 0)
        return false;

#ifdef _MSC_VER
    __try
    {
        __asm xorpd xmm0, xmm0        // executing SSE2 instruction
    }
    __except (1)
    {
        return false;
    }
    return true;
#else
    typedef void (*SigHandler)(int);

    SigHandler oldHandler = signal(SIGILL, SigIllHandler);
    if (oldHandler == SIG_ERR)
        return false;

    bool result = true;
    if (setjmp(s_env))
        result = false;
    else
        __asm __volatile ("xorpd %xmm0, %xmm0");

    signal(SIGILL, oldHandler);
    return result;
#endif
}
#endif // SSE2_INTRINSICS_AVAILABLE


static bool IsP4()
{
    if (!IsPentium())
        return false;

    word32 cpuid[4];

    CpuId(1, cpuid);
    return ((cpuid[0] >> 8) & 0xf) == 0xf;
}

// ************** Pentium/P4 optimizations ***************

class PentiumOptimized : public Portable
{
public:
    static word TAOCRYPT_CDECL Add(word *C, const word *A, const word *B,
                                   unsigned int N);
    static word TAOCRYPT_CDECL Subtract(word *C, const word *A, const word *B,
                                        unsigned int N);
    static void TAOCRYPT_CDECL Multiply4(word *C, const word *A,
                                         const word *B);
    static void TAOCRYPT_CDECL Multiply8(word *C, const word *A,
                                         const word *B);
    static void TAOCRYPT_CDECL Multiply8Bottom(word *C, const word *A,
                                               const word *B);
};

class P4Optimized
{
public:
    static word TAOCRYPT_CDECL Add(word *C, const word *A, const word *B,
                                   unsigned int N);
    static word TAOCRYPT_CDECL Subtract(word *C, const word *A, const word *B,
                                        unsigned int N);
#ifdef SSE2_INTRINSICS_AVAILABLE
    static void TAOCRYPT_CDECL Multiply4(word *C, const word *A,
                                         const word *B);
    static void TAOCRYPT_CDECL Multiply8(word *C, const word *A,
                                         const word *B);
    static void TAOCRYPT_CDECL Multiply8Bottom(word *C, const word *A,
                                               const word *B);
#endif
};

typedef word (TAOCRYPT_CDECL * PAddSub)(word *C, const word *A, const word *B,
                                        unsigned int N);
typedef void (TAOCRYPT_CDECL * PMul)(word *C, const word *A, const word *B);

static PAddSub s_pAdd, s_pSub;
#ifdef SSE2_INTRINSICS_AVAILABLE
static PMul s_pMul4, s_pMul8, s_pMul8B;
#endif

static void SetPentiumFunctionPointers()
{
    if (!IsPentium())
    {   
        s_pAdd = &Portable::Add;
        s_pSub = &Portable::Subtract;
    }
    else if (IsP4())
    {
        s_pAdd = &P4Optimized::Add;
        s_pSub = &P4Optimized::Subtract;
    }
    else
    {
        s_pAdd = &PentiumOptimized::Add;
        s_pSub = &PentiumOptimized::Subtract;
    }

#ifdef SSE2_INTRINSICS_AVAILABLE
    if (!IsPentium()) 
    {
        s_pMul4 = &Portable::Multiply4;
        s_pMul8 = &Portable::Multiply8;
        s_pMul8B = &Portable::Multiply8Bottom;
    }
    else if (HasSSE2())
    {
        s_pMul4 = &P4Optimized::Multiply4;
        s_pMul8 = &P4Optimized::Multiply8;
        s_pMul8B = &P4Optimized::Multiply8Bottom;
    }
    else
    {
        s_pMul4 = &PentiumOptimized::Multiply4;
        s_pMul8 = &PentiumOptimized::Multiply8;
        s_pMul8B = &PentiumOptimized::Multiply8Bottom;
    }
#endif
}

static const char s_RunAtStartupSetPentiumFunctionPointers =
    (SetPentiumFunctionPointers(), 0);


class LowLevel : public PentiumOptimized
{
public:
    inline static word Add(word *C, const word *A, const word *B,
                           unsigned int N)
        {return s_pAdd(C, A, B, N);}
    inline static word Subtract(word *C, const word *A, const word *B,
                                unsigned int N)
        {return s_pSub(C, A, B, N);}
    inline static void Square4(word *R, const word *A)
        {Multiply4(R, A, A);}
#ifdef SSE2_INTRINSICS_AVAILABLE
    inline static void Multiply4(word *C, const word *A, const word *B)
        {s_pMul4(C, A, B);}
    inline static void Multiply8(word *C, const word *A, const word *B)
        {s_pMul8(C, A, B);}
    inline static void Multiply8Bottom(word *C, const word *A, const word *B)
        {s_pMul8B(C, A, B);}
#endif
};

// use some tricks to share assembly code between MSVC and GCC
#ifdef _MSC_VER
    #define TAOCRYPT_NAKED __declspec(naked)
    #define AS1(x) __asm x
    #define AS2(x, y) __asm x, y
    #define AddPrologue \
        __asm   push ebp \
        __asm   push ebx \
        __asm   push esi \
        __asm   push edi \
        __asm   mov             ecx, [esp+20] \
        __asm   mov             edx, [esp+24] \
        __asm   mov             ebx, [esp+28] \
        __asm   mov             esi, [esp+32]
    #define AddEpilogue \
        __asm   pop edi \
        __asm   pop esi \
        __asm   pop ebx \
        __asm   pop ebp \
        __asm   ret
    #define MulPrologue \
        __asm   push ebp \
        __asm   push ebx \
        __asm   push esi \
        __asm   push edi \
        __asm   mov ecx, [esp+28] \
        __asm   mov esi, [esp+24] \
        __asm   push [esp+20]
    #define MulEpilogue \
        __asm   add esp, 4 \
        __asm   pop edi \
        __asm   pop esi \
        __asm   pop ebx \
        __asm   pop ebp \
        __asm   ret
#else
    #define TAOCRYPT_NAKED
    #define AS1(x) #x ";"
    #define AS2(x, y) #x ", " #y ";"
    #define AddPrologue \
        word res; \
        __asm__ __volatile__ \
        ( \
            "push %%ebx;"       /* save this manually, in case of -fPIC */ \
            "mov %3, %%ebx;" \
            ".intel_syntax noprefix;" \
            "push ebp;"
    #define AddEpilogue \
            "pop ebp;" \
            ".att_syntax prefix;" \
            "pop %%ebx;" \
            "mov %%eax, %0;" \
                    : "=g" (res) \
                    : "c" (C), "d" (A), "m" (B), "S" (N) \
                    : "%edi", "memory", "cc" \
        ); \
        return res;

    #define MulPrologue \
        __asm__ __volatile__ \
        ( \
            "push %%ebx;"       /* save this manually, in case of -fPIC */ \
            "push %%ebp;" \
            "push %0;" \
            ".intel_syntax noprefix;"
    #define MulEpilogue \
            "add esp, 4;" \
            "pop ebp;" \
            "pop ebx;" \
            ".att_syntax prefix;" \
            : \
            : "rm" (Z), "S" (X), "c" (Y) \
            : "%eax", "%edx", "%edi", "memory", "cc" \
        );
#endif

TAOCRYPT_NAKED word PentiumOptimized::Add(word *C, const word *A,
                                          const word *B, unsigned int N)
{
    AddPrologue

    // now: ebx = B, ecx = C, edx = A, esi = N
    AS2(    sub ecx, edx)           // hold the distance between C & A so we
                                    // can add this to A to get C
    AS2(    xor eax, eax)           // clear eax

    AS2(    sub eax, esi)           // eax is a negative index from end of B
    AS2(    lea ebx, [ebx+4*esi])   // ebx is end of B

    AS2(    sar eax, 1)             // unit of eax is now dwords; this also
                                    // clears the carry flag
    AS1(    jz  loopendAdd)         // if no dwords then nothing to do

    AS1(loopstartAdd:)
    AS2(    mov    esi,[edx])           // load lower word of A
    AS2(    mov    ebp,[edx+4])         // load higher word of A

    AS2(    mov    edi,[ebx+8*eax])     // load lower word of B
    AS2(    lea    edx,[edx+8])         // advance A and C

    AS2(    adc    esi,edi)             // add lower words
    AS2(    mov    edi,[ebx+8*eax+4])   // load higher word of B

    AS2(    adc    ebp,edi)             // add higher words
    AS1(    inc    eax)                 // advance B

    AS2(    mov    [edx+ecx-8],esi)     // store lower word result
    AS2(    mov    [edx+ecx-4],ebp)     // store higher word result

    AS1(    jnz    loopstartAdd)   // loop until eax overflows and becomes zero

    AS1(loopendAdd:)
    AS2(    adc eax, 0)     // store carry into eax (return result register)

    AddEpilogue
}

TAOCRYPT_NAKED word PentiumOptimized::Subtract(word *C, const word *A,
                                               const word *B, unsigned int N)
{
    AddPrologue

    // now: ebx = B, ecx = C, edx = A, esi = N
    AS2(    sub ecx, edx)           // hold the distance between C & A so we
                                    // can add this to A to get C
    AS2(    xor eax, eax)           // clear eax

    AS2(    sub eax, esi)           // eax is a negative index from end of B
    AS2(    lea ebx, [ebx+4*esi])   // ebx is end of B

    AS2(    sar eax, 1)             // unit of eax is now dwords; this also
                                    // clears the carry flag
    AS1(    jz  loopendSub)         // if no dwords then nothing to do

    AS1(loopstartSub:)
    AS2(    mov    esi,[edx])           // load lower word of A
    AS2(    mov    ebp,[edx+4])         // load higher word of A

    AS2(    mov    edi,[ebx+8*eax])     // load lower word of B
    AS2(    lea    edx,[edx+8])         // advance A and C

    AS2(    sbb    esi,edi)             // subtract lower words
    AS2(    mov    edi,[ebx+8*eax+4])   // load higher word of B

    AS2(    sbb    ebp,edi)             // subtract higher words
    AS1(    inc    eax)                 // advance B

    AS2(    mov    [edx+ecx-8],esi)     // store lower word result
    AS2(    mov    [edx+ecx-4],ebp)     // store higher word result

    AS1(    jnz    loopstartSub)   // loop until eax overflows and becomes zero

    AS1(loopendSub:)
    AS2(    adc eax, 0)     // store carry into eax (return result register)

    AddEpilogue
}

// On Pentium 4, the adc and sbb instructions are very expensive, so avoid them.

TAOCRYPT_NAKED word P4Optimized::Add(word *C, const word *A, const word *B,
                                     unsigned int N)
{
    AddPrologue

    // now: ebx = B, ecx = C, edx = A, esi = N
    AS2(    xor     eax, eax)
    AS1(    neg     esi)
    AS1(    jz      loopendAddP4)       // if no dwords then nothing to do

    AS2(    mov     edi, [edx])
    AS2(    mov     ebp, [ebx])
    AS1(    jmp     carry1AddP4)

    AS1(loopstartAddP4:)
    AS2(    mov     edi, [edx+8])
    AS2(    add     ecx, 8)
    AS2(    add     edx, 8)
    AS2(    mov     ebp, [ebx])
    AS2(    add     edi, eax)
    AS1(    jc      carry1AddP4)
    AS2(    xor     eax, eax)

    AS1(carry1AddP4:)
    AS2(    add     edi, ebp)
    AS2(    mov     ebp, 1)
    AS2(    mov     [ecx], edi)
    AS2(    mov     edi, [edx+4])
    AS2(    cmovc   eax, ebp)
    AS2(    mov     ebp, [ebx+4])
    AS2(    add     ebx, 8)
    AS2(    add     edi, eax)
    AS1(    jc      carry2AddP4)
    AS2(    xor     eax, eax)

    AS1(carry2AddP4:)
    AS2(    add     edi, ebp)
    AS2(    mov     ebp, 1)
    AS2(    cmovc   eax, ebp)
    AS2(    mov     [ecx+4], edi)
    AS2(    add     esi, 2)
    AS1(    jnz     loopstartAddP4)

    AS1(loopendAddP4:)

    AddEpilogue
}

TAOCRYPT_NAKED word P4Optimized::Subtract(word *C, const word *A,
                                          const word *B, unsigned int N)
{
    AddPrologue

    // now: ebx = B, ecx = C, edx = A, esi = N
    AS2(    xor     eax, eax)
    AS1(    neg     esi)
    AS1(    jz      loopendSubP4)       // if no dwords then nothing to do

    AS2(    mov     edi, [edx])
    AS2(    mov     ebp, [ebx])
    AS1(    jmp     carry1SubP4)

    AS1(loopstartSubP4:)
    AS2(    mov     edi, [edx+8])
    AS2(    add     edx, 8)
    AS2(    add     ecx, 8)
    AS2(    mov     ebp, [ebx])
    AS2(    sub     edi, eax)
    AS1(    jc      carry1SubP4)
    AS2(    xor     eax, eax)

    AS1(carry1SubP4:)
    AS2(    sub     edi, ebp)
    AS2(    mov     ebp, 1)
    AS2(    mov     [ecx], edi)
    AS2(    mov     edi, [edx+4])
    AS2(    cmovc   eax, ebp)
    AS2(    mov     ebp, [ebx+4])
    AS2(    add     ebx, 8)
    AS2(    sub     edi, eax)
    AS1(    jc      carry2SubP4)
    AS2(    xor     eax, eax)

    AS1(carry2SubP4:)
    AS2(    sub     edi, ebp)
    AS2(    mov     ebp, 1)
    AS2(    cmovc   eax, ebp)
    AS2(    mov     [ecx+4], edi)
    AS2(    add     esi, 2)
    AS1(    jnz     loopstartSubP4)

    AS1(loopendSubP4:)

    AddEpilogue
}

// multiply assembly code originally contributed by Leonard Janke

#define MulStartup \
    AS2(xor ebp, ebp) \
    AS2(xor edi, edi) \
    AS2(xor ebx, ebx) 

#define MulShiftCarry \
    AS2(mov ebp, edx) \
    AS2(mov edi, ebx) \
    AS2(xor ebx, ebx)

#define MulAccumulateBottom(i,j) \
    AS2(mov eax, [ecx+4*j]) \
    AS2(imul eax, dword ptr [esi+4*i]) \
    AS2(add ebp, eax)

#define MulAccumulate(i,j) \
    AS2(mov eax, [ecx+4*j]) \
    AS1(mul dword ptr [esi+4*i]) \
    AS2(add ebp, eax) \
    AS2(adc edi, edx) \
    AS2(adc bl, bh)

#define MulStoreDigit(i)  \
    AS2(mov edx, edi) \
    AS2(mov edi, [esp]) \
    AS2(mov [edi+4*i], ebp)

#define MulLastDiagonal(digits) \
    AS2(mov eax, [ecx+4*(digits-1)]) \
    AS1(mul dword ptr [esi+4*(digits-1)]) \
    AS2(add ebp, eax) \
    AS2(adc edx, edi) \
    AS2(mov edi, [esp]) \
    AS2(mov [edi+4*(2*digits-2)], ebp) \
    AS2(mov [edi+4*(2*digits-1)], edx)

TAOCRYPT_NAKED void PentiumOptimized::Multiply4(word* Z, const word* X,
                                                const word* Y)
{
    MulPrologue
    // now: [esp] = Z, esi = X, ecx = Y
    MulStartup
    MulAccumulate(0,0)
    MulStoreDigit(0)
    MulShiftCarry

    MulAccumulate(1,0)
    MulAccumulate(0,1)
    MulStoreDigit(1)
    MulShiftCarry

    MulAccumulate(2,0)
    MulAccumulate(1,1)
    MulAccumulate(0,2)
    MulStoreDigit(2)
    MulShiftCarry

    MulAccumulate(3,0)
    MulAccumulate(2,1)
    MulAccumulate(1,2)
    MulAccumulate(0,3)
    MulStoreDigit(3)
    MulShiftCarry

    MulAccumulate(3,1)
    MulAccumulate(2,2)
    MulAccumulate(1,3)
    MulStoreDigit(4)
    MulShiftCarry

    MulAccumulate(3,2)
    MulAccumulate(2,3)
    MulStoreDigit(5)
    MulShiftCarry

    MulLastDiagonal(4)
    MulEpilogue
}

TAOCRYPT_NAKED void PentiumOptimized::Multiply8(word* Z, const word* X,
                                                const word* Y)
{
    MulPrologue
    // now: [esp] = Z, esi = X, ecx = Y
    MulStartup
    MulAccumulate(0,0)
    MulStoreDigit(0)
    MulShiftCarry

    MulAccumulate(1,0)
    MulAccumulate(0,1)
    MulStoreDigit(1)
    MulShiftCarry

    MulAccumulate(2,0)
    MulAccumulate(1,1)
    MulAccumulate(0,2)
    MulStoreDigit(2)
    MulShiftCarry

    MulAccumulate(3,0)
    MulAccumulate(2,1)
    MulAccumulate(1,2)
    MulAccumulate(0,3)
    MulStoreDigit(3)
    MulShiftCarry

    MulAccumulate(4,0)
    MulAccumulate(3,1)
    MulAccumulate(2,2)
    MulAccumulate(1,3)
    MulAccumulate(0,4)
    MulStoreDigit(4)
    MulShiftCarry

    MulAccumulate(5,0)
    MulAccumulate(4,1)
    MulAccumulate(3,2)
    MulAccumulate(2,3)
    MulAccumulate(1,4)
    MulAccumulate(0,5)
    MulStoreDigit(5)
    MulShiftCarry

    MulAccumulate(6,0)
    MulAccumulate(5,1)
    MulAccumulate(4,2)
    MulAccumulate(3,3)
    MulAccumulate(2,4)
    MulAccumulate(1,5)
    MulAccumulate(0,6)
    MulStoreDigit(6)
    MulShiftCarry

    MulAccumulate(7,0)
    MulAccumulate(6,1)
    MulAccumulate(5,2)
    MulAccumulate(4,3)
    MulAccumulate(3,4)
    MulAccumulate(2,5)
    MulAccumulate(1,6)
    MulAccumulate(0,7)
    MulStoreDigit(7)
    MulShiftCarry

    MulAccumulate(7,1)
    MulAccumulate(6,2)
    MulAccumulate(5,3)
    MulAccumulate(4,4)
    MulAccumulate(3,5)
    MulAccumulate(2,6)
    MulAccumulate(1,7)
    MulStoreDigit(8)
    MulShiftCarry

    MulAccumulate(7,2)
    MulAccumulate(6,3)
    MulAccumulate(5,4)
    MulAccumulate(4,5)
    MulAccumulate(3,6)
    MulAccumulate(2,7)
    MulStoreDigit(9)
    MulShiftCarry

    MulAccumulate(7,3)
    MulAccumulate(6,4)
    MulAccumulate(5,5)
    MulAccumulate(4,6)
    MulAccumulate(3,7)
    MulStoreDigit(10)
    MulShiftCarry

    MulAccumulate(7,4)
    MulAccumulate(6,5)
    MulAccumulate(5,6)
    MulAccumulate(4,7)
    MulStoreDigit(11)
    MulShiftCarry

    MulAccumulate(7,5)
    MulAccumulate(6,6)
    MulAccumulate(5,7)
    MulStoreDigit(12)
    MulShiftCarry

    MulAccumulate(7,6)
    MulAccumulate(6,7)
    MulStoreDigit(13)
    MulShiftCarry

    MulLastDiagonal(8)
    MulEpilogue
}

TAOCRYPT_NAKED void PentiumOptimized::Multiply8Bottom(word* Z, const word* X,
                                                      const word* Y)
{
    MulPrologue
    // now: [esp] = Z, esi = X, ecx = Y
    MulStartup
    MulAccumulate(0,0)
    MulStoreDigit(0)
    MulShiftCarry

    MulAccumulate(1,0)
    MulAccumulate(0,1)
    MulStoreDigit(1)
    MulShiftCarry

    MulAccumulate(2,0)
    MulAccumulate(1,1)
    MulAccumulate(0,2)
    MulStoreDigit(2)
    MulShiftCarry

    MulAccumulate(3,0)
    MulAccumulate(2,1)
    MulAccumulate(1,2)
    MulAccumulate(0,3)
    MulStoreDigit(3)
    MulShiftCarry

    MulAccumulate(4,0)
    MulAccumulate(3,1)
    MulAccumulate(2,2)
    MulAccumulate(1,3)
    MulAccumulate(0,4)
    MulStoreDigit(4)
    MulShiftCarry

    MulAccumulate(5,0)
    MulAccumulate(4,1)
    MulAccumulate(3,2)
    MulAccumulate(2,3)
    MulAccumulate(1,4)
    MulAccumulate(0,5)
    MulStoreDigit(5)
    MulShiftCarry

    MulAccumulate(6,0)
    MulAccumulate(5,1)
    MulAccumulate(4,2)
    MulAccumulate(3,3)
    MulAccumulate(2,4)
    MulAccumulate(1,5)
    MulAccumulate(0,6)
    MulStoreDigit(6)
    MulShiftCarry

    MulAccumulateBottom(7,0)
    MulAccumulateBottom(6,1)
    MulAccumulateBottom(5,2)
    MulAccumulateBottom(4,3)
    MulAccumulateBottom(3,4)
    MulAccumulateBottom(2,5)
    MulAccumulateBottom(1,6)
    MulAccumulateBottom(0,7)
    MulStoreDigit(7)
    MulEpilogue
}

#undef AS1
#undef AS2

#else   // not x86 - no processor specific code at this layer

typedef Portable LowLevel;

#endif

#ifdef SSE2_INTRINSICS_AVAILABLE

#ifdef __GNUC__
#define TAOCRYPT_FASTCALL
#else
#define TAOCRYPT_FASTCALL __fastcall
#endif

static void TAOCRYPT_FASTCALL P4_Mul(__m128i *C, const __m128i *A,
                                     const __m128i *B)
{
    __m128i a3210 = _mm_load_si128(A);
    __m128i b3210 = _mm_load_si128(B);

    __m128i sum;

    __m128i z = _mm_setzero_si128();
    __m128i a2b2_a0b0 = _mm_mul_epu32(a3210, b3210);
    C[0] = a2b2_a0b0;

    __m128i a3120 = _mm_shuffle_epi32(a3210, _MM_SHUFFLE(3, 1, 2, 0));
    __m128i b3021 = _mm_shuffle_epi32(b3210, _MM_SHUFFLE(3, 0, 2, 1));
    __m128i a1b0_a0b1 = _mm_mul_epu32(a3120, b3021);
    __m128i a1b0 = _mm_unpackhi_epi32(a1b0_a0b1, z);
    __m128i a0b1 = _mm_unpacklo_epi32(a1b0_a0b1, z);
    C[1] = _mm_add_epi64(a1b0, a0b1);

    __m128i a31 = _mm_srli_epi64(a3210, 32);
    __m128i b31 = _mm_srli_epi64(b3210, 32);
    __m128i a3b3_a1b1 = _mm_mul_epu32(a31, b31);
    C[6] = a3b3_a1b1;

    __m128i a1b1 = _mm_unpacklo_epi32(a3b3_a1b1, z);
    __m128i b3012 = _mm_shuffle_epi32(b3210, _MM_SHUFFLE(3, 0, 1, 2));
    __m128i a2b0_a0b2 = _mm_mul_epu32(a3210, b3012);
    __m128i a0b2 = _mm_unpacklo_epi32(a2b0_a0b2, z);
    __m128i a2b0 = _mm_unpackhi_epi32(a2b0_a0b2, z);
    sum = _mm_add_epi64(a1b1, a0b2);
    C[2] = _mm_add_epi64(sum, a2b0);

    __m128i a2301 = _mm_shuffle_epi32(a3210, _MM_SHUFFLE(2, 3, 0, 1));
    __m128i b2103 = _mm_shuffle_epi32(b3210, _MM_SHUFFLE(2, 1, 0, 3));
    __m128i a3b0_a1b2 = _mm_mul_epu32(a2301, b3012);
    __m128i a2b1_a0b3 = _mm_mul_epu32(a3210, b2103);
    __m128i a3b0 = _mm_unpackhi_epi32(a3b0_a1b2, z);
    __m128i a1b2 = _mm_unpacklo_epi32(a3b0_a1b2, z);
    __m128i a2b1 = _mm_unpackhi_epi32(a2b1_a0b3, z);
    __m128i a0b3 = _mm_unpacklo_epi32(a2b1_a0b3, z);
    __m128i sum1 = _mm_add_epi64(a3b0, a1b2);
    sum = _mm_add_epi64(a2b1, a0b3);
    C[3] = _mm_add_epi64(sum, sum1);

    __m128i     a3b1_a1b3 = _mm_mul_epu32(a2301, b2103);
    __m128i a2b2 = _mm_unpackhi_epi32(a2b2_a0b0, z);
    __m128i a3b1 = _mm_unpackhi_epi32(a3b1_a1b3, z);
    __m128i a1b3 = _mm_unpacklo_epi32(a3b1_a1b3, z);
    sum = _mm_add_epi64(a2b2, a3b1);
    C[4] = _mm_add_epi64(sum, a1b3);

    __m128i a1302 = _mm_shuffle_epi32(a3210, _MM_SHUFFLE(1, 3, 0, 2));
    __m128i b1203 = _mm_shuffle_epi32(b3210, _MM_SHUFFLE(1, 2, 0, 3));
    __m128i a3b2_a2b3 = _mm_mul_epu32(a1302, b1203);
    __m128i a3b2 = _mm_unpackhi_epi32(a3b2_a2b3, z);
    __m128i a2b3 = _mm_unpacklo_epi32(a3b2_a2b3, z);
    C[5] = _mm_add_epi64(a3b2, a2b3);
}

void P4Optimized::Multiply4(word *C, const word *A, const word *B)
{
    __m128i temp[7];
    const word *w = (word *)temp;
    const __m64 *mw = (__m64 *)w;

    P4_Mul(temp, (__m128i *)A, (__m128i *)B);

    C[0] = w[0];

    __m64 s1, s2;

    __m64 w1 = _mm_cvtsi32_si64(w[1]);
    __m64 w4 = mw[2];
    __m64 w6 = mw[3];
    __m64 w8 = mw[4];
    __m64 w10 = mw[5];
    __m64 w12 = mw[6];
    __m64 w14 = mw[7];
    __m64 w16 = mw[8];
    __m64 w18 = mw[9];
    __m64 w20 = mw[10];
    __m64 w22 = mw[11];
    __m64 w26 = _mm_cvtsi32_si64(w[26]);

    s1 = _mm_add_si64(w1, w4);
    C[1] = _mm_cvtsi64_si32(s1);
    s1 = _mm_srli_si64(s1, 32);

    s2 = _mm_add_si64(w6, w8);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, s2);
    C[2] = _mm_cvtsi64_si32(s1);
    s1 = _mm_srli_si64(s1, 32);

    s2 = _mm_add_si64(w10, w12);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, s2);
    C[3] = _mm_cvtsi64_si32(s1);
    s1 = _mm_srli_si64(s1, 32);

    s2 = _mm_add_si64(w14, w16);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, s2);
    C[4] = _mm_cvtsi64_si32(s1);
    s1 = _mm_srli_si64(s1, 32);

    s2 = _mm_add_si64(w18, w20);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, s2);
    C[5] = _mm_cvtsi64_si32(s1);
    s1 = _mm_srli_si64(s1, 32);

    s2 = _mm_add_si64(w22, w26);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, s2);
    C[6] = _mm_cvtsi64_si32(s1);
    s1 = _mm_srli_si64(s1, 32);

    C[7] = _mm_cvtsi64_si32(s1) + w[27];
    _mm_empty();
}

void P4Optimized::Multiply8(word *C, const word *A, const word *B)
{
    __m128i temp[28];
    const word *w = (word *)temp;
    const __m64 *mw = (__m64 *)w;
    const word *x = (word *)temp+7*4;
    const __m64 *mx = (__m64 *)x;
    const word *y = (word *)temp+7*4*2;
    const __m64 *my = (__m64 *)y;
    const word *z = (word *)temp+7*4*3;
    const __m64 *mz = (__m64 *)z;

    P4_Mul(temp, (__m128i *)A, (__m128i *)B);

    P4_Mul(temp+7, (__m128i *)A+1, (__m128i *)B);

    P4_Mul(temp+14, (__m128i *)A, (__m128i *)B+1);

    P4_Mul(temp+21, (__m128i *)A+1, (__m128i *)B+1);

    C[0] = w[0];

    __m64 s1, s2, s3, s4;

    __m64 w1 = _mm_cvtsi32_si64(w[1]);
    __m64 w4 = mw[2];
    __m64 w6 = mw[3];
    __m64 w8 = mw[4];
    __m64 w10 = mw[5];
    __m64 w12 = mw[6];
    __m64 w14 = mw[7];
    __m64 w16 = mw[8];
    __m64 w18 = mw[9];
    __m64 w20 = mw[10];
    __m64 w22 = mw[11];
    __m64 w26 = _mm_cvtsi32_si64(w[26]);
    __m64 w27 = _mm_cvtsi32_si64(w[27]);

    __m64 x0 = _mm_cvtsi32_si64(x[0]);
    __m64 x1 = _mm_cvtsi32_si64(x[1]);
    __m64 x4 = mx[2];
    __m64 x6 = mx[3];
    __m64 x8 = mx[4];
    __m64 x10 = mx[5];
    __m64 x12 = mx[6];
    __m64 x14 = mx[7];
    __m64 x16 = mx[8];
    __m64 x18 = mx[9];
    __m64 x20 = mx[10];
    __m64 x22 = mx[11];
    __m64 x26 = _mm_cvtsi32_si64(x[26]);
    __m64 x27 = _mm_cvtsi32_si64(x[27]);

    __m64 y0 = _mm_cvtsi32_si64(y[0]);
    __m64 y1 = _mm_cvtsi32_si64(y[1]);
    __m64 y4 = my[2];
    __m64 y6 = my[3];
    __m64 y8 = my[4];
    __m64 y10 = my[5];
    __m64 y12 = my[6];
    __m64 y14 = my[7];
    __m64 y16 = my[8];
    __m64 y18 = my[9];
    __m64 y20 = my[10];
    __m64 y22 = my[11];
    __m64 y26 = _mm_cvtsi32_si64(y[26]);
    __m64 y27 = _mm_cvtsi32_si64(y[27]);

    __m64 z0 = _mm_cvtsi32_si64(z[0]);
    __m64 z1 = _mm_cvtsi32_si64(z[1]);
    __m64 z4 = mz[2];
    __m64 z6 = mz[3];
    __m64 z8 = mz[4];
    __m64 z10 = mz[5];
    __m64 z12 = mz[6];
    __m64 z14 = mz[7];
    __m64 z16 = mz[8];
    __m64 z18 = mz[9];
    __m64 z20 = mz[10];
    __m64 z22 = mz[11];
    __m64 z26 = _mm_cvtsi32_si64(z[26]);

    s1 = _mm_add_si64(w1, w4);
    C[1] = _mm_cvtsi64_si32(s1);
    s1 = _mm_srli_si64(s1, 32);

    s2 = _mm_add_si64(w6, w8);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, s2);
    C[2] = _mm_cvtsi64_si32(s1);
    s1 = _mm_srli_si64(s1, 32);

    s2 = _mm_add_si64(w10, w12);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, s2);
    C[3] = _mm_cvtsi64_si32(s1);
    s1 = _mm_srli_si64(s1, 32);

    s3 = _mm_add_si64(x0, y0);
    s2 = _mm_add_si64(w14, w16);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, s3);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, s2);
    C[4] = _mm_cvtsi64_si32(s1);
    s1 = _mm_srli_si64(s1, 32);

    s3 = _mm_add_si64(x1, y1);
    s4 = _mm_add_si64(x4, y4);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, w18);
    s3 = _mm_add_si64(s3, s4);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, w20);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, s3);
    C[5] = _mm_cvtsi64_si32(s1);
    s1 = _mm_srli_si64(s1, 32);

    s3 = _mm_add_si64(x6, y6);
    s4 = _mm_add_si64(x8, y8);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, w22);
    s3 = _mm_add_si64(s3, s4);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, w26);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, s3);
    C[6] = _mm_cvtsi64_si32(s1);
    s1 = _mm_srli_si64(s1, 32);

    s3 = _mm_add_si64(x10, y10);
    s4 = _mm_add_si64(x12, y12);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, w27);
    s3 = _mm_add_si64(s3, s4);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, s3);
    C[7] = _mm_cvtsi64_si32(s1);
    s1 = _mm_srli_si64(s1, 32);

    s3 = _mm_add_si64(x14, y14);
    s4 = _mm_add_si64(x16, y16);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, z0);
    s3 = _mm_add_si64(s3, s4);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, s3);
    C[8] = _mm_cvtsi64_si32(s1);
    s1 = _mm_srli_si64(s1, 32);

    s3 = _mm_add_si64(x18, y18);
    s4 = _mm_add_si64(x20, y20);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, z1);
    s3 = _mm_add_si64(s3, s4);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, z4);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, s3);
    C[9] = _mm_cvtsi64_si32(s1);
    s1 = _mm_srli_si64(s1, 32);

    s3 = _mm_add_si64(x22, y22);
    s4 = _mm_add_si64(x26, y26);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, z6);
    s3 = _mm_add_si64(s3, s4);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, z8);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, s3);
    C[10] = _mm_cvtsi64_si32(s1);
    s1 = _mm_srli_si64(s1, 32);

    s3 = _mm_add_si64(x27, y27);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, z10);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, z12);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, s3);
    C[11] = _mm_cvtsi64_si32(s1);
    s1 = _mm_srli_si64(s1, 32);

    s3 = _mm_add_si64(z14, z16);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, s3);
    C[12] = _mm_cvtsi64_si32(s1);
    s1 = _mm_srli_si64(s1, 32);

    s3 = _mm_add_si64(z18, z20);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, s3);
    C[13] = _mm_cvtsi64_si32(s1);
    s1 = _mm_srli_si64(s1, 32);

    s3 = _mm_add_si64(z22, z26);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, s3);
    C[14] = _mm_cvtsi64_si32(s1);
    s1 = _mm_srli_si64(s1, 32);

    C[15] = z[27] + _mm_cvtsi64_si32(s1);
    _mm_empty();
}

void P4Optimized::Multiply8Bottom(word *C, const word *A, const word *B)
{
    __m128i temp[21];
    const word *w = (word *)temp;
    const __m64 *mw = (__m64 *)w;
    const word *x = (word *)temp+7*4;
    const __m64 *mx = (__m64 *)x;
    const word *y = (word *)temp+7*4*2;
    const __m64 *my = (__m64 *)y;

    P4_Mul(temp, (__m128i *)A, (__m128i *)B);

    P4_Mul(temp+7, (__m128i *)A+1, (__m128i *)B);

    P4_Mul(temp+14, (__m128i *)A, (__m128i *)B+1);

    C[0] = w[0];

    __m64 s1, s2, s3, s4;

    __m64 w1 = _mm_cvtsi32_si64(w[1]);
    __m64 w4 = mw[2];
    __m64 w6 = mw[3];
    __m64 w8 = mw[4];
    __m64 w10 = mw[5];
    __m64 w12 = mw[6];
    __m64 w14 = mw[7];
    __m64 w16 = mw[8];
    __m64 w18 = mw[9];
    __m64 w20 = mw[10];
    __m64 w22 = mw[11];
    __m64 w26 = _mm_cvtsi32_si64(w[26]);

    __m64 x0 = _mm_cvtsi32_si64(x[0]);
    __m64 x1 = _mm_cvtsi32_si64(x[1]);
    __m64 x4 = mx[2];
    __m64 x6 = mx[3];
    __m64 x8 = mx[4];

    __m64 y0 = _mm_cvtsi32_si64(y[0]);
    __m64 y1 = _mm_cvtsi32_si64(y[1]);
    __m64 y4 = my[2];
    __m64 y6 = my[3];
    __m64 y8 = my[4];

    s1 = _mm_add_si64(w1, w4);
    C[1] = _mm_cvtsi64_si32(s1);
    s1 = _mm_srli_si64(s1, 32);

    s2 = _mm_add_si64(w6, w8);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, s2);
    C[2] = _mm_cvtsi64_si32(s1);
    s1 = _mm_srli_si64(s1, 32);

    s2 = _mm_add_si64(w10, w12);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, s2);
    C[3] = _mm_cvtsi64_si32(s1);
    s1 = _mm_srli_si64(s1, 32);

    s3 = _mm_add_si64(x0, y0);
    s2 = _mm_add_si64(w14, w16);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, s3);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, s2);
    C[4] = _mm_cvtsi64_si32(s1);
    s1 = _mm_srli_si64(s1, 32);

    s3 = _mm_add_si64(x1, y1);
    s4 = _mm_add_si64(x4, y4);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, w18);
    s3 = _mm_add_si64(s3, s4);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, w20);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, s3);
    C[5] = _mm_cvtsi64_si32(s1);
    s1 = _mm_srli_si64(s1, 32);

    s3 = _mm_add_si64(x6, y6);
    s4 = _mm_add_si64(x8, y8);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, w22);
    s3 = _mm_add_si64(s3, s4);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, w26);
    s1 = _mm_add_si64(s1, s3);
    C[6] = _mm_cvtsi64_si32(s1);
    s1 = _mm_srli_si64(s1, 32);

    C[7] = _mm_cvtsi64_si32(s1) + w[27] + x[10] + y[10] + x[12] + y[12];
    _mm_empty();
}

#endif  // #ifdef SSE2_INTRINSICS_AVAILABLE

// end optimized

// ********************************************************

#define A0      A
#define A1      (A+N2)
#define B0      B
#define B1      (B+N2)

#define T0      T
#define T1      (T+N2)
#define T2      (T+N)
#define T3      (T+N+N2)

#define R0      R
#define R1      (R+N2)
#define R2      (R+N)
#define R3      (R+N+N2)

//VC60 workaround: compiler bug triggered without the extra dummy parameters

// R[2*N] - result = A*B
// T[2*N] - temporary work space
// A[N] --- multiplier
// B[N] --- multiplicant


void RecursiveMultiply(word *R, word *T, const word *A, const word *B,
                       unsigned int N)
{
    if (LowLevel::MultiplyRecursionLimit() >= 8 && N==8)
        LowLevel::Multiply8(R, A, B);
    else if (LowLevel::MultiplyRecursionLimit() >= 4 && N==4)
        LowLevel::Multiply4(R, A, B);
    else if (N==2)
        LowLevel::Multiply2(R, A, B);
    else
    {
        const unsigned int N2 = N/2;
        int carry;

        int aComp = Compare(A0, A1, N2);
        int bComp = Compare(B0, B1, N2);

        switch (2*aComp + aComp + bComp)
        {
        case -4:
            LowLevel::Subtract(R0, A1, A0, N2);
            LowLevel::Subtract(R1, B0, B1, N2);
            RecursiveMultiply(T0, T2, R0, R1, N2);
            LowLevel::Subtract(T1, T1, R0, N2);
            carry = -1;
            break;
        case -2:
            LowLevel::Subtract(R0, A1, A0, N2);
            LowLevel::Subtract(R1, B0, B1, N2);
            RecursiveMultiply(T0, T2, R0, R1, N2);
            carry = 0;
            break;
        case 2:
            LowLevel::Subtract(R0, A0, A1, N2);
            LowLevel::Subtract(R1, B1, B0, N2);
            RecursiveMultiply(T0, T2, R0, R1, N2);
            carry = 0;
            break;
        case 4:
            LowLevel::Subtract(R0, A1, A0, N2);
            LowLevel::Subtract(R1, B0, B1, N2);
            RecursiveMultiply(T0, T2, R0, R1, N2);
            LowLevel::Subtract(T1, T1, R1, N2);
            carry = -1;
            break;
        default:
            SetWords(T0, 0, N);
            carry = 0;
        }

        RecursiveMultiply(R0, T2, A0, B0, N2);
        RecursiveMultiply(R2, T2, A1, B1, N2);

        // now T[01] holds (A1-A0)*(B0-B1),R[01] holds A0*B0, R[23] holds A1*B1

        carry += LowLevel::Add(T0, T0, R0, N);
        carry += LowLevel::Add(T0, T0, R2, N);
        carry += LowLevel::Add(R1, R1, T0, N);

        Increment(R3, N2, carry);
    }
}


void RecursiveSquare(word *R, word *T, const word *A, unsigned int N)                     
{
    if (LowLevel::SquareRecursionLimit() >= 4 && N==4)
        LowLevel::Square4(R, A);
    else if (N==2)
        LowLevel::Square2(R, A);
    else
    {
        const unsigned int N2 = N/2;

        RecursiveSquare(R0, T2, A0, N2);
        RecursiveSquare(R2, T2, A1, N2);
        RecursiveMultiply(T0, T2, A0, A1, N2);

        word carry = LowLevel::Add(R1, R1, T0, N);
        carry += LowLevel::Add(R1, R1, T0, N);
        Increment(R3, N2, carry);
    }
}


// R[N] - bottom half of A*B
// T[N] - temporary work space
// A[N] - multiplier
// B[N] - multiplicant


void RecursiveMultiplyBottom(word *R, word *T, const word *A, const word *B,
                             unsigned int N)
{
    if (LowLevel::MultiplyBottomRecursionLimit() >= 8 && N==8)
        LowLevel::Multiply8Bottom(R, A, B);
    else if (LowLevel::MultiplyBottomRecursionLimit() >= 4 && N==4)
        LowLevel::Multiply4Bottom(R, A, B);
    else if (N==2)
        LowLevel::Multiply2Bottom(R, A, B);
    else
    {
        const unsigned int N2 = N/2;

        RecursiveMultiply(R, T, A0, B0, N2);
        RecursiveMultiplyBottom(T0, T1, A1, B0, N2);
        LowLevel::Add(R1, R1, T0, N2);
        RecursiveMultiplyBottom(T0, T1, A0, B1, N2);
        LowLevel::Add(R1, R1, T0, N2);
    }
}


void RecursiveMultiplyTop(word *R, word *T, const word *L, const word *A,
                          const word *B, unsigned int N)
{
    if (N==4)
    {
        LowLevel::Multiply4(T, A, B);
        memcpy(R, T+4, 4*WORD_SIZE);
    }
    else if (N==2)
    {
        LowLevel::Multiply2(T, A, B);
        memcpy(R, T+2, 2*WORD_SIZE);
    }
    else
    {
        const unsigned int N2 = N/2;
        int carry;

        int aComp = Compare(A0, A1, N2);
        int bComp = Compare(B0, B1, N2);

        switch (2*aComp + aComp + bComp)
        {
        case -4:
            LowLevel::Subtract(R0, A1, A0, N2);
            LowLevel::Subtract(R1, B0, B1, N2);
            RecursiveMultiply(T0, T2, R0, R1, N2);
            LowLevel::Subtract(T1, T1, R0, N2);
            carry = -1;
            break;
        case -2:
            LowLevel::Subtract(R0, A1, A0, N2);
            LowLevel::Subtract(R1, B0, B1, N2);
            RecursiveMultiply(T0, T2, R0, R1, N2);
            carry = 0;
            break;
        case 2:
            LowLevel::Subtract(R0, A0, A1, N2);
            LowLevel::Subtract(R1, B1, B0, N2);
            RecursiveMultiply(T0, T2, R0, R1, N2);
            carry = 0;
            break;
        case 4:
            LowLevel::Subtract(R0, A1, A0, N2);
            LowLevel::Subtract(R1, B0, B1, N2);
            RecursiveMultiply(T0, T2, R0, R1, N2);
            LowLevel::Subtract(T1, T1, R1, N2);
            carry = -1;
            break;
        default:
            SetWords(T0, 0, N);
            carry = 0;
        }

        RecursiveMultiply(T2, R0, A1, B1, N2);

        // now T[01] holds (A1-A0)*(B0-B1), T[23] holds A1*B1

        word c2 = LowLevel::Subtract(R0, L+N2, L, N2);
        c2 += LowLevel::Subtract(R0, R0, T0, N2);
        word t = (Compare(R0, T2, N2) == -1);

        carry += t;
        carry += Increment(R0, N2, c2+t);
        carry += LowLevel::Add(R0, R0, T1, N2);
        carry += LowLevel::Add(R0, R0, T3, N2);

        CopyWords(R1, T3, N2);
        Increment(R1, N2, carry);
    }
}


inline word Add(word *C, const word *A, const word *B, unsigned int N)
{
    return LowLevel::Add(C, A, B, N);
}

inline word Subtract(word *C, const word *A, const word *B, unsigned int N)
{
    return LowLevel::Subtract(C, A, B, N);
}

inline void Multiply(word *R, word *T, const word *A, const word *B,
                     unsigned int N)
{
    RecursiveMultiply(R, T, A, B, N);
}

inline void Square(word *R, word *T, const word *A, unsigned int N)
{
    RecursiveSquare(R, T, A, N);
}


void AsymmetricMultiply(word *R, word *T, const word *A, unsigned int NA,
                        const word *B, unsigned int NB)
{
    if (NA == NB)
    {
        if (A == B)
            Square(R, T, A, NA);
        else
            Multiply(R, T, A, B, NA);

        return;
    }

    if (NA > NB)
    {
        STL::swap(A, B);
        STL::swap(NA, NB);
    }

    if (NA==2 && !A[1])
    {
        switch (A[0])
        {
        case 0:
            SetWords(R, 0, NB+2);
            return;
        case 1:
            CopyWords(R, B, NB);
            R[NB] = R[NB+1] = 0;
            return;
        default:
            R[NB] = LinearMultiply(R, B, A[0], NB);
            R[NB+1] = 0;
            return;
        }
    }

    Multiply(R, T, A, B, NA);
    CopyWords(T+2*NA, R+NA, NA);

    unsigned i;

    for (i=2*NA; i<NB; i+=2*NA)
        Multiply(T+NA+i, T, A, B+i, NA);
    for (i=NA; i<NB; i+=2*NA)
        Multiply(R+i, T, A, B+i, NA);

    if (Add(R+NA, R+NA, T+2*NA, NB-NA))
        Increment(R+NB, NA);
}


void PositiveMultiply(Integer& product, const Integer& a, const Integer& b)
{
    unsigned int aSize = RoundupSize(a.WordCount());
    unsigned int bSize = RoundupSize(b.WordCount());

    product.reg_.CleanNew(RoundupSize(aSize + bSize));
    product.sign_ = Integer::POSITIVE;

    AlignedWordBlock workspace(aSize + bSize);
    AsymmetricMultiply(product.reg_.get_buffer(), workspace.get_buffer(),
                       a.reg_.get_buffer(), aSize, b.reg_.get_buffer(), bSize);
}

void Multiply(Integer &product, const Integer &a, const Integer &b)
{
    PositiveMultiply(product, a, b);

    if (a.NotNegative() != b.NotNegative())
        product.Negate();
}


static inline unsigned int EvenWordCount(const word *X, unsigned int N)
{
    while (N && X[N-2]==0 && X[N-1]==0)
        N-=2;
    return N;
}


unsigned int AlmostInverse(word *R, word *T, const word *A, unsigned int NA,
                           const word *M, unsigned int N)
{
    word *b = T;
    word *c = T+N;
    word *f = T+2*N;
    word *g = T+3*N;
    unsigned int bcLen=2, fgLen=EvenWordCount(M, N);
    unsigned int k=0, s=0;

    SetWords(T, 0, 3*N);
    b[0]=1;
    CopyWords(f, A, NA);
    CopyWords(g, M, N);

    while (1)
    {
        word t=f[0];
        while (!t)
        {
            if (EvenWordCount(f, fgLen)==0)
            {
                SetWords(R, 0, N);
                return 0;
            }

            ShiftWordsRightByWords(f, fgLen, 1);
            if (c[bcLen-1]) bcLen+=2;
            ShiftWordsLeftByWords(c, bcLen, 1);
            k+=WORD_BITS;
            t=f[0];
        }

        unsigned int i=0;
        while (t%2 == 0)
        {
            t>>=1;
            i++;
        }
        k+=i;

        if (t==1 && f[1]==0 && EvenWordCount(f, fgLen)==2)
        {
            if (s%2==0)
                CopyWords(R, b, N);
            else
                Subtract(R, M, b, N);
            return k;
        }

        ShiftWordsRightByBits(f, fgLen, i);
        t=ShiftWordsLeftByBits(c, bcLen, i);
        if (t)
        {
            c[bcLen] = t;
            bcLen+=2;
        }

        if (f[fgLen-2]==0 && g[fgLen-2]==0 && f[fgLen-1]==0 && g[fgLen-1]==0)
            fgLen-=2;

        if (Compare(f, g, fgLen)==-1)
        {
            STL::swap(f, g);
            STL::swap(b, c);
            s++;
        }

        Subtract(f, f, g, fgLen);

        if (Add(b, b, c, bcLen))
        {
            b[bcLen] = 1;
            bcLen+=2;
        }
    }
}

// R[N] - result = A/(2^k) mod M
// A[N] - input
// M[N] - modulus

void DivideByPower2Mod(word *R, const word *A, unsigned int k, const word *M,
                       unsigned int N)
{
    CopyWords(R, A, N);

    while (k--)
    {
        if (R[0]%2==0)
            ShiftWordsRightByBits(R, N, 1);
        else
        {
            word carry = Add(R, R, M, N);
            ShiftWordsRightByBits(R, N, 1);
            R[N-1] += carry<<(WORD_BITS-1);
        }
    }
}

// R[N] - result = A*(2^k) mod M
// A[N] - input
// M[N] - modulus

void MultiplyByPower2Mod(word *R, const word *A, unsigned int k, const word *M,
                         unsigned int N)
{
    CopyWords(R, A, N);

    while (k--)
        if (ShiftWordsLeftByBits(R, N, 1) || Compare(R, M, N)>=0)
            Subtract(R, R, M, N);
}


// ********** end of integer needs


Integer::Integer()
    : reg_(2), sign_(POSITIVE)
{
    reg_[0] = reg_[1] = 0;
}


Integer::Integer(const Integer& t)
    : reg_(RoundupSize(t.WordCount())), sign_(t.sign_)
{
    CopyWords(reg_.get_buffer(), t.reg_.get_buffer(), reg_.size());
}


Integer::Integer(signed long value)
    : reg_(2)
{
    if (value >= 0)
        sign_ = POSITIVE;
    else
    {
        sign_ = NEGATIVE;
        value = -value;
    }
    reg_[0] = word(value);
    reg_[1] = word(SafeRightShift<WORD_BITS, unsigned long>(value));
}


Integer::Integer(Sign s, word high, word low)
    : reg_(2), sign_(s)
{
    reg_[0] = low;
    reg_[1] = high;
}


Integer::Integer(word value, unsigned int length)
    : reg_(RoundupSize(length)), sign_(POSITIVE)
{
    reg_[0] = value;
    SetWords(reg_ + 1, 0, reg_.size() - 1);
}


Integer::Integer(const byte *encodedInteger, unsigned int byteCount,
                 Signedness s)
{
    Decode(encodedInteger, byteCount, s);
}

class BadBER {};

// BER Decode Source
Integer::Integer(Source& source)
    : reg_(2), sign_(POSITIVE)
{
    Decode(source);
}

void Integer::Decode(Source& source)
{
    byte b = source.next();
    if (b != INTEGER) {
        source.SetError(INTEGER_E);
        return;
    }

    word32 length = GetLength(source);
    if (length == 0 || source.GetError().What()) return;

    if ( (b = source.next()) == 0x00)
        length--;
    else
        source.prev();

    if (source.IsLeft(length) == false) return;
 
    unsigned int words = (length + WORD_SIZE - 1) / WORD_SIZE;
    words = RoundupSize(words);
    if (words > reg_.size()) reg_.CleanNew(words);

    for (int j = length; j > 0; j--) {
        b = source.next();
        reg_ [(j-1) / WORD_SIZE] |= (word)b << ((j-1) % WORD_SIZE) * 8;
    }
}


void Integer::Decode(const byte* input, unsigned int inputLen, Signedness s)
{
    unsigned int idx(0);
    byte b = input[idx++];
    sign_  = ((s==SIGNED) && (b & 0x80)) ? NEGATIVE : POSITIVE;

    while (inputLen>0 && (sign_==POSITIVE ? b==0 : b==0xff))
    {
        inputLen--;
        b = input[idx++];
    }

    reg_.CleanNew(RoundupSize(BytesToWords(inputLen)));

    --idx;
    for (unsigned int i=inputLen; i > 0; i--)
    {
        b = input[idx++];
        reg_[(i-1)/WORD_SIZE] |= (word)b << ((i-1)%WORD_SIZE)*8;
    }

    if (sign_ == NEGATIVE)
    {
        for (unsigned i=inputLen; i<reg_.size()*WORD_SIZE; i++)
            reg_[i/WORD_SIZE] |= (word)0xff << (i%WORD_SIZE)*8;
        TwosComplement(reg_.get_buffer(), reg_.size());
    }
}


unsigned int Integer::Encode(byte* output, unsigned int outputLen,
                       Signedness signedness) const
{
    unsigned int idx(0);
    if (signedness == UNSIGNED || NotNegative())
    {
        for (unsigned int i=outputLen; i > 0; i--)
            output[idx++] = GetByte(i-1);
    }
    else
    {
        // take two's complement of *this
        Integer temp = Integer::Power2(8*max(ByteCount(), outputLen)) + *this;
        for (unsigned i=0; i<outputLen; i++)
            output[idx++] = temp.GetByte(outputLen-i-1);
    }
    return outputLen;
}


static Integer* zero = 0;

const Integer &Integer::Zero()
{
    if (!zero)
        zero = NEW_TC Integer;
    return *zero;
}


static Integer* one = 0;

const Integer &Integer::One()
{
    if (!one)
        one = NEW_TC Integer(1,2);
    return *one;
}


// Clean up static singleton holders, not a leak, but helpful to have gone
// when checking for leaks
void CleanUp()
{
    tcDelete(one);
    tcDelete(zero);

    // In case user calls more than once, prevent seg fault
    one  = 0;
    zero = 0;
}

Integer::Integer(RandomNumberGenerator& rng, const Integer& min,
                 const Integer& max)
{
    Randomize(rng, min, max);
}


void Integer::Randomize(RandomNumberGenerator& rng, unsigned int nbits)
{
    const unsigned int nbytes = nbits/8 + 1;
    ByteBlock buf(nbytes);
    rng.GenerateBlock(buf.get_buffer(), nbytes);
    if (nbytes)
        buf[0] = (byte)Crop(buf[0], nbits % 8);
    Decode(buf.get_buffer(), nbytes, UNSIGNED);
}

void Integer::Randomize(RandomNumberGenerator& rng, const Integer& min,
                        const Integer& max)
{
    Integer range = max - min;
    const unsigned int nbits = range.BitCount();

    do
    {
        Randomize(rng, nbits);
    }
    while (*this > range);

    *this += min;
}


Integer Integer::Power2(unsigned int e)
{
    Integer r((word)0, BitsToWords(e + 1));
    r.SetBit(e);
    return r;
}


void Integer::SetBit(unsigned int n, bool value)
{
    if (value)
    {
        reg_.CleanGrow(RoundupSize(BitsToWords(n + 1)));
        reg_[n / WORD_BITS] |= (word(1) << (n % WORD_BITS));
    }
    else
    {
        if (n / WORD_BITS < reg_.size())
            reg_[n / WORD_BITS] &= ~(word(1) << (n % WORD_BITS));
    }
}


void Integer::SetByte(unsigned int n, byte value)
{
    reg_.CleanGrow(RoundupSize(BytesToWords(n+1)));
    reg_[n/WORD_SIZE] &= ~(word(0xff) << 8*(n%WORD_SIZE));
    reg_[n/WORD_SIZE] |= (word(value) << 8*(n%WORD_SIZE));
}


void Integer::Negate()
{
    if (!!(*this))      // don't flip sign if *this==0
        sign_ = Sign(1 - sign_);
}


bool Integer::operator!() const
{
    return IsNegative() ? false : (reg_[0]==0 && WordCount()==0);
}


Integer& Integer::operator=(const Integer& t)
{
    if (this != &t)
    {
        reg_.New(RoundupSize(t.WordCount()));
        CopyWords(reg_.get_buffer(), t.reg_.get_buffer(), reg_.size());
        sign_ = t.sign_;
    }
    return *this;
}


Integer& Integer::operator+=(const Integer& t)
{
    reg_.CleanGrow(t.reg_.size());
    if (NotNegative())
    {
        if (t.NotNegative())
            PositiveAdd(*this, *this, t);
        else
            PositiveSubtract(*this, *this, t);
    }
    else
    {
        if (t.NotNegative())
            PositiveSubtract(*this, t, *this);
        else
        {
            PositiveAdd(*this, *this, t);
            sign_ = Integer::NEGATIVE;
        }
    }
    return *this;
}


Integer Integer::operator-() const
{
    Integer result(*this);
    result.Negate();
    return result;
}


Integer& Integer::operator-=(const Integer& t)
{
    reg_.CleanGrow(t.reg_.size());
    if (NotNegative())
    {
        if (t.NotNegative())
            PositiveSubtract(*this, *this, t);
        else
            PositiveAdd(*this, *this, t);
    }
    else
    {
        if (t.NotNegative())
        {
            PositiveAdd(*this, *this, t);
            sign_ = Integer::NEGATIVE;
        }
        else
            PositiveSubtract(*this, t, *this);
    }
    return *this;
}


Integer& Integer::operator++()
{
    if (NotNegative())
    {
        if (Increment(reg_.get_buffer(), reg_.size()))
        {
            reg_.CleanGrow(2*reg_.size());
            reg_[reg_.size()/2]=1;
        }
    }
    else
    {
        word borrow = Decrement(reg_.get_buffer(), reg_.size());
        (void)borrow;           // shut up compiler
        if (WordCount()==0)
            *this = Zero();
    }
    return *this;
}

Integer& Integer::operator--()
{
    if (IsNegative())
    {
        if (Increment(reg_.get_buffer(), reg_.size()))
        {
            reg_.CleanGrow(2*reg_.size());
            reg_[reg_.size()/2]=1;
        }
    }
    else
    {
        if (Decrement(reg_.get_buffer(), reg_.size()))
            *this = -One();
    }
    return *this;
}


Integer& Integer::operator<<=(unsigned int n)
{
    const unsigned int wordCount = WordCount();
    const unsigned int shiftWords = n / WORD_BITS;
    const unsigned int shiftBits = n % WORD_BITS;

    reg_.CleanGrow(RoundupSize(wordCount+BitsToWords(n)));
    ShiftWordsLeftByWords(reg_.get_buffer(), wordCount + shiftWords,
                          shiftWords);
    ShiftWordsLeftByBits(reg_+shiftWords, wordCount+BitsToWords(shiftBits),
                         shiftBits);
    return *this;
}

Integer& Integer::operator>>=(unsigned int n)
{
    const unsigned int wordCount = WordCount();
    const unsigned int shiftWords = n / WORD_BITS;
    const unsigned int shiftBits = n % WORD_BITS;

    ShiftWordsRightByWords(reg_.get_buffer(), wordCount, shiftWords);
    if (wordCount > shiftWords)
        ShiftWordsRightByBits(reg_.get_buffer(), wordCount-shiftWords,
                              shiftBits);
    if (IsNegative() && WordCount()==0)   // avoid -0
        *this = Zero();
    return *this;
}


void PositiveAdd(Integer& sum, const Integer& a, const Integer& b)
{
    word carry;
    if (a.reg_.size() == b.reg_.size())
        carry = Add(sum.reg_.get_buffer(), a.reg_.get_buffer(),
                    b.reg_.get_buffer(), a.reg_.size());
    else if (a.reg_.size() > b.reg_.size())
    {
        carry = Add(sum.reg_.get_buffer(), a.reg_.get_buffer(),
                    b.reg_.get_buffer(), b.reg_.size());
        CopyWords(sum.reg_+b.reg_.size(), a.reg_+b.reg_.size(),
                  a.reg_.size()-b.reg_.size());
        carry = Increment(sum.reg_+b.reg_.size(), a.reg_.size()-b.reg_.size(),
                          carry);
    }
    else
    {
        carry = Add(sum.reg_.get_buffer(), a.reg_.get_buffer(),
                    b.reg_.get_buffer(), a.reg_.size());
        CopyWords(sum.reg_+a.reg_.size(), b.reg_+a.reg_.size(),
                  b.reg_.size()-a.reg_.size());
        carry = Increment(sum.reg_+a.reg_.size(), b.reg_.size()-a.reg_.size(),
                          carry);
    }

    if (carry)
    {
        sum.reg_.CleanGrow(2*sum.reg_.size());
        sum.reg_[sum.reg_.size()/2] = 1;
    }
    sum.sign_ = Integer::POSITIVE;
}

void PositiveSubtract(Integer &diff, const Integer &a, const Integer& b)
{
    unsigned aSize = a.WordCount();
    aSize += aSize%2;
    unsigned bSize = b.WordCount();
    bSize += bSize%2;

    if (aSize == bSize)
    {
        if (Compare(a.reg_.get_buffer(), b.reg_.get_buffer(), aSize) >= 0)
        {
            Subtract(diff.reg_.get_buffer(), a.reg_.get_buffer(),
                     b.reg_.get_buffer(), aSize);
            diff.sign_ = Integer::POSITIVE;
        }
        else
        {
            Subtract(diff.reg_.get_buffer(), b.reg_.get_buffer(),
                     a.reg_.get_buffer(), aSize);
            diff.sign_ = Integer::NEGATIVE;
        }
    }
    else if (aSize > bSize)
    {
        word borrow = Subtract(diff.reg_.get_buffer(), a.reg_.get_buffer(),
                               b.reg_.get_buffer(), bSize);
        CopyWords(diff.reg_+bSize, a.reg_+bSize, aSize-bSize);
        borrow = Decrement(diff.reg_+bSize, aSize-bSize, borrow);
        diff.sign_ = Integer::POSITIVE;
    }
    else
    {
        word borrow = Subtract(diff.reg_.get_buffer(), b.reg_.get_buffer(),
                               a.reg_.get_buffer(), aSize);
        CopyWords(diff.reg_+aSize, b.reg_+aSize, bSize-aSize);
        borrow = Decrement(diff.reg_+aSize, bSize-aSize, borrow);
        diff.sign_ = Integer::NEGATIVE;
    }
}


unsigned int Integer::MinEncodedSize(Signedness signedness) const
{
    unsigned int outputLen = max(1U, ByteCount());
    if (signedness == UNSIGNED)
        return outputLen;
    if (NotNegative() && (GetByte(outputLen-1) & 0x80))
        outputLen++;
    if (IsNegative() && *this < -Power2(outputLen*8-1))
        outputLen++;
    return outputLen;
}


int Integer::Compare(const Integer& t) const
{
    if (NotNegative())
    {
        if (t.NotNegative())
            return PositiveCompare(t);
        else
            return 1;
    }
    else
    {
        if (t.NotNegative())
            return -1;
        else
            return -PositiveCompare(t);
    }
}


int Integer::PositiveCompare(const Integer& t) const
{
    unsigned size = WordCount(), tSize = t.WordCount();

    if (size == tSize)
        return TaoCrypt::Compare(reg_.get_buffer(), t.reg_.get_buffer(), size);
    else
        return size > tSize ? 1 : -1;
}


bool Integer::GetBit(unsigned int n) const
{
    if (n/WORD_BITS >= reg_.size())
        return 0;
    else
        return bool((reg_[n/WORD_BITS] >> (n % WORD_BITS)) & 1);
}


unsigned long Integer::GetBits(unsigned int i, unsigned int n) const
{
    unsigned long v = 0;
    for (unsigned int j=0; j<n; j++)
        v |= GetBit(i+j) << j;
    return v;
}


byte Integer::GetByte(unsigned int n) const
{
    if (n/WORD_SIZE >= reg_.size())
        return 0;
    else
        return byte(reg_[n/WORD_SIZE] >> ((n%WORD_SIZE)*8));
}


unsigned int Integer::BitCount() const
{
    unsigned wordCount = WordCount();
    if (wordCount)
        return (wordCount-1)*WORD_BITS + BitPrecision(reg_[wordCount-1]);
    else
        return 0;
}


unsigned int Integer::ByteCount() const
{
    unsigned wordCount = WordCount();
    if (wordCount)
        return (wordCount-1)*WORD_SIZE + BytePrecision(reg_[wordCount-1]);
    else
        return 0;
}


unsigned int Integer::WordCount() const
{
    return CountWords(reg_.get_buffer(), reg_.size());
}


bool Integer::IsConvertableToLong() const
{
    if (ByteCount() > sizeof(long))
        return false;

    unsigned long value = reg_[0];
    value += SafeLeftShift<WORD_BITS, unsigned long>(reg_[1]);

    if (sign_ == POSITIVE)
        return (signed long)value >= 0;
    else
        return -(signed long)value < 0;
}


signed long Integer::ConvertToLong() const
{
    unsigned long value = reg_[0];
    value += SafeLeftShift<WORD_BITS, unsigned long>(reg_[1]);
    return sign_ == POSITIVE ? value : -(signed long)value;
}


void Integer::Swap(Integer& a)
{
    reg_.Swap(a.reg_);
    STL::swap(sign_, a.sign_);
}


Integer Integer::Plus(const Integer& b) const
{
    Integer sum((word)0, max(reg_.size(), b.reg_.size()));
    if (NotNegative())
    {
        if (b.NotNegative())
            PositiveAdd(sum, *this, b);
        else
            PositiveSubtract(sum, *this, b);
    }
    else
    {
        if (b.NotNegative())
            PositiveSubtract(sum, b, *this);
        else
        {
            PositiveAdd(sum, *this, b);
            sum.sign_ = Integer::NEGATIVE;
        }
    }
    return sum;
}


Integer Integer::Minus(const Integer& b) const
{
    Integer diff((word)0, max(reg_.size(), b.reg_.size()));
    if (NotNegative())
    {
        if (b.NotNegative())
            PositiveSubtract(diff, *this, b);
        else
            PositiveAdd(diff, *this, b);
    }
    else
    {
        if (b.NotNegative())
        {
            PositiveAdd(diff, *this, b);
            diff.sign_ = Integer::NEGATIVE;
        }
        else
            PositiveSubtract(diff, b, *this);
    }
    return diff;
}


Integer Integer::Times(const Integer &b) const
{
    Integer product;
    Multiply(product, *this, b);
    return product;
}


#undef A0
#undef A1
#undef B0
#undef B1

#undef T0
#undef T1
#undef T2
#undef T3

#undef R0
#undef R1
#undef R2
#undef R3


static inline void AtomicDivide(word *Q, const word *A, const word *B)
{
    word T[4];
    DWord q = DivideFourWordsByTwo<word, DWord>(T, DWord(A[0], A[1]),
                                         DWord(A[2], A[3]), DWord(B[0], B[1]));
    Q[0] = q.GetLowHalf();
    Q[1] = q.GetHighHalf();

#ifndef NDEBUG
    if (B[0] || B[1])
    {
        // multiply quotient and divisor and add remainder, make sure it 
        // equals dividend
        word P[4];
        Portable::Multiply2(P, Q, B);
        Add(P, P, T, 4);
    }
#endif
}


// for use by Divide(), corrects the underestimated quotient {Q1,Q0}
static void CorrectQuotientEstimate(word *R, word *T, word *Q, const word *B,
                                    unsigned int N)
{
    if (Q[1])
    {
        T[N] = T[N+1] = 0;
        unsigned i;
        for (i=0; i<N; i+=4)
            LowLevel::Multiply2(T+i, Q, B+i);
        for (i=2; i<N; i+=4)
            if (LowLevel::Multiply2Add(T+i, Q, B+i))
                T[i+5] += (++T[i+4]==0);
    }
    else
    {
        T[N] = LinearMultiply(T, B, Q[0], N);
        T[N+1] = 0;
    }

    word borrow = Subtract(R, R, T, N+2);
    (void)borrow;       // shut up compiler

    while (R[N] || Compare(R, B, N) >= 0)
    {
        R[N] -= Subtract(R, R, B, N);
        Q[1] += (++Q[0]==0);
    }
}

// R[NB] -------- remainder = A%B
// Q[NA-NB+2] --- quotient      = A/B
// T[NA+2*NB+4] - temp work space
// A[NA] -------- dividend
// B[NB] -------- divisor


void Divide(word* R, word* Q, word* T, const word* A, unsigned int NA,
            const word* B, unsigned int NB)
{
    // set up temporary work space
    word *const TA=T;
    word *const TB=T+NA+2;
    word *const TP=T+NA+2+NB;

    // copy B into TB and normalize it so that TB has highest bit set to 1
    unsigned shiftWords = (B[NB-1]==0);
    TB[0] = TB[NB-1] = 0;
    CopyWords(TB+shiftWords, B, NB-shiftWords);
    unsigned shiftBits = WORD_BITS - BitPrecision(TB[NB-1]);
    ShiftWordsLeftByBits(TB, NB, shiftBits);

    // copy A into TA and normalize it
    TA[0] = TA[NA] = TA[NA+1] = 0;
    CopyWords(TA+shiftWords, A, NA);
    ShiftWordsLeftByBits(TA, NA+2, shiftBits);

    if (TA[NA+1]==0 && TA[NA] <= 1)
    {
        Q[NA-NB+1] = Q[NA-NB] = 0;
        while (TA[NA] || Compare(TA+NA-NB, TB, NB) >= 0)
        {
            TA[NA] -= Subtract(TA+NA-NB, TA+NA-NB, TB, NB);
            ++Q[NA-NB];
        }
    }
    else
    {
        NA+=2;
    }

    word BT[2];
    BT[0] = TB[NB-2] + 1;
    BT[1] = TB[NB-1] + (BT[0]==0);

    // start reducing TA mod TB, 2 words at a time
    for (unsigned i=NA-2; i>=NB; i-=2)
    {
        AtomicDivide(Q+i-NB, TA+i-2, BT);
        CorrectQuotientEstimate(TA+i-NB, TP, Q+i-NB, TB, NB);
    }

    // copy TA into R, and denormalize it
    CopyWords(R, TA+shiftWords, NB);
    ShiftWordsRightByBits(R, NB, shiftBits);
}


void PositiveDivide(Integer& remainder, Integer& quotient,
                   const Integer& a, const Integer& b)
{
    unsigned aSize = a.WordCount();
    unsigned bSize = b.WordCount();

    if (a.PositiveCompare(b) == -1)
    {
        remainder = a;
        remainder.sign_ = Integer::POSITIVE;
        quotient = Integer::Zero();
        return;
    }

    aSize += aSize%2;   // round up to next even number
    bSize += bSize%2;

    remainder.reg_.CleanNew(RoundupSize(bSize));
    remainder.sign_ = Integer::POSITIVE;
    quotient.reg_.CleanNew(RoundupSize(aSize-bSize+2));
    quotient.sign_ = Integer::POSITIVE;

    AlignedWordBlock T(aSize+2*bSize+4);
    Divide(remainder.reg_.get_buffer(), quotient.reg_.get_buffer(),
           T.get_buffer(), a.reg_.get_buffer(), aSize, b.reg_.get_buffer(),
           bSize);
}

void Integer::Divide(Integer &remainder, Integer &quotient,
                     const Integer &dividend, const Integer &divisor)
{
    PositiveDivide(remainder, quotient, dividend, divisor);

    if (dividend.IsNegative())
    {
        quotient.Negate();
        if (remainder.NotZero())
        {
            --quotient;
            remainder = divisor.AbsoluteValue() - remainder;
        }
    }

    if (divisor.IsNegative())
        quotient.Negate();
}

void Integer::DivideByPowerOf2(Integer &r, Integer &q, const Integer &a,
                               unsigned int n)
{
    q = a;
    q >>= n;

    const unsigned int wordCount = BitsToWords(n);
    if (wordCount <= a.WordCount())
    {
        r.reg_.resize(RoundupSize(wordCount));
        CopyWords(r.reg_.get_buffer(), a.reg_.get_buffer(), wordCount);
        SetWords(r.reg_+wordCount, 0, r.reg_.size()-wordCount);
        if (n % WORD_BITS != 0)
          r.reg_[wordCount-1] %= (word(1) << (n % WORD_BITS));
    }
    else
    {
        r.reg_.resize(RoundupSize(a.WordCount()));
        CopyWords(r.reg_.get_buffer(), a.reg_.get_buffer(), r.reg_.size());
    }
    r.sign_ = POSITIVE;

    if (a.IsNegative() && r.NotZero())
    {
        --q;
        r = Power2(n) - r;
    }
}

Integer Integer::DividedBy(const Integer &b) const
{
    Integer remainder, quotient;
    Integer::Divide(remainder, quotient, *this, b);
    return quotient;
}

Integer Integer::Modulo(const Integer &b) const
{
    Integer remainder, quotient;
    Integer::Divide(remainder, quotient, *this, b);
    return remainder;
}

void Integer::Divide(word &remainder, Integer &quotient,
                     const Integer &dividend, word divisor)
{
    if ((divisor & (divisor-1)) == 0)   // divisor is a power of 2
    {
        quotient = dividend >> (BitPrecision(divisor)-1);
        remainder = dividend.reg_[0] & (divisor-1);
        return;
    }

    unsigned int i = dividend.WordCount();
    quotient.reg_.CleanNew(RoundupSize(i));
    remainder = 0;
    while (i--)
    {
        quotient.reg_[i] = DWord(dividend.reg_[i], remainder) / divisor;
        remainder = DWord(dividend.reg_[i], remainder) % divisor;
    }

    if (dividend.NotNegative())
        quotient.sign_ = POSITIVE;
    else
    {
        quotient.sign_ = NEGATIVE;
        if (remainder)
        {
            --quotient;
            remainder = divisor - remainder;
        }
    }
}

Integer Integer::DividedBy(word b) const
{
    word remainder;
    Integer quotient;
    Integer::Divide(remainder, quotient, *this, b);
    return quotient;
}

word Integer::Modulo(word divisor) const
{
    word remainder;

    if ((divisor & (divisor-1)) == 0)   // divisor is a power of 2
        remainder = reg_[0] & (divisor-1);
    else
    {
        unsigned int i = WordCount();

        if (divisor <= 5)
        {
            DWord sum(0, 0);
            while (i--)
                sum += reg_[i];
            remainder = sum % divisor;
        }
        else
        {
            remainder = 0;
            while (i--)
                remainder = DWord(reg_[i], remainder) % divisor;
        }
    }

    if (IsNegative() && remainder)
        remainder = divisor - remainder;

    return remainder;
}


Integer Integer::AbsoluteValue() const
{
    Integer result(*this);
    result.sign_ = POSITIVE;
    return result;
}


Integer Integer::SquareRoot() const
{
    if (!IsPositive())
        return Zero();

    // overestimate square root
    Integer x, y = Power2((BitCount()+1)/2);

    do
    {
        x = y;
        y = (x + *this/x) >> 1;
    } while (y<x);

    return x;
}

bool Integer::IsSquare() const
{
    Integer r = SquareRoot();
    return *this == r.Squared();
}

bool Integer::IsUnit() const
{
    return (WordCount() == 1) && (reg_[0] == 1);
}

Integer Integer::MultiplicativeInverse() const
{
    return IsUnit() ? *this : Zero();
}

Integer a_times_b_mod_c(const Integer &x, const Integer& y, const Integer& m)
{
    return x*y%m;
}

Integer a_exp_b_mod_c(const Integer &x, const Integer& e, const Integer& m)
{
    ModularArithmetic mr(m);
    return mr.Exponentiate(x, e);
}

Integer Integer::Gcd(const Integer &a, const Integer &b)
{
    return EuclideanDomainOf().Gcd(a, b);
}

Integer Integer::InverseMod(const Integer &m) const
{
    if (IsNegative() || *this>=m)
        return (*this%m).InverseMod(m);

    if (m.IsEven())
    {
        if (!m || IsEven())
            return Zero();      // no inverse
        if (*this == One())
            return One();

        Integer u = m.InverseMod(*this);
        return !u ? Zero() : (m*(*this-u)+1)/(*this);
    }

    AlignedWordBlock T(m.reg_.size() * 4);
    Integer r((word)0, m.reg_.size());
    unsigned k = AlmostInverse(r.reg_.get_buffer(), T.get_buffer(),
                               reg_.get_buffer(), reg_.size(),
                               m.reg_.get_buffer(), m.reg_.size());
    DivideByPower2Mod(r.reg_.get_buffer(), r.reg_.get_buffer(), k,
                      m.reg_.get_buffer(), m.reg_.size());
    return r;
}

word Integer::InverseMod(const word mod) const
{
    word g0 = mod, g1 = *this % mod;
    word v0 = 0, v1 = 1;
    word y;

    while (g1)
    {
        if (g1 == 1)
            return v1;
        y = g0 / g1;
        g0 = g0 % g1;
        v0 += y * v1;

        if (!g0)
            break;
        if (g0 == 1)
            return mod-v0;
        y = g1 / g0;
        g1 = g1 % g0;
        v1 += y * v0;
    }
    return 0;
}

// ********* ModArith stuff

const Integer& ModularArithmetic::Half(const Integer &a) const
{
    if (a.reg_.size()==modulus.reg_.size())
    {
        TaoCrypt::DivideByPower2Mod(result.reg_.begin(), a.reg_.begin(), 1,
                                    modulus.reg_.begin(), a.reg_.size());
        return result;
    }
    else
        return result1 = (a.IsEven() ? (a >> 1) : ((a+modulus) >> 1));
}

const Integer& ModularArithmetic::Add(const Integer &a, const Integer &b) const
{
    if (a.reg_.size()==modulus.reg_.size() && 
        b.reg_.size()==modulus.reg_.size())
    {
        if (TaoCrypt::Add(result.reg_.begin(), a.reg_.begin(), b.reg_.begin(),
                          a.reg_.size())
            || Compare(result.reg_.get_buffer(), modulus.reg_.get_buffer(),
                       a.reg_.size()) >= 0)
        {
            TaoCrypt::Subtract(result.reg_.begin(), result.reg_.begin(),
                               modulus.reg_.begin(), a.reg_.size());
        }
        return result;
    }
    else
    {
        result1 = a+b;
        if (result1 >= modulus)
            result1 -= modulus;
        return result1;
    }
}

Integer& ModularArithmetic::Accumulate(Integer &a, const Integer &b) const
{
    if (a.reg_.size()==modulus.reg_.size() && 
        b.reg_.size()==modulus.reg_.size())
    {
        if (TaoCrypt::Add(a.reg_.get_buffer(), a.reg_.get_buffer(),
                          b.reg_.get_buffer(), a.reg_.size())
            || Compare(a.reg_.get_buffer(), modulus.reg_.get_buffer(),
                       a.reg_.size()) >= 0)
        {
            TaoCrypt::Subtract(a.reg_.get_buffer(), a.reg_.get_buffer(),
                               modulus.reg_.get_buffer(), a.reg_.size());
        }
    }
    else
    {
        a+=b;
        if (a>=modulus)
            a-=modulus;
    }

    return a;
}

const Integer& ModularArithmetic::Subtract(const Integer &a,
                                           const Integer &b) const
{
    if (a.reg_.size()==modulus.reg_.size() && 
        b.reg_.size()==modulus.reg_.size())
    {
        if (TaoCrypt::Subtract(result.reg_.begin(), a.reg_.begin(),
                               b.reg_.begin(), a.reg_.size()))
            TaoCrypt::Add(result.reg_.begin(), result.reg_.begin(),
                          modulus.reg_.begin(), a.reg_.size());
        return result;
    }
    else
    {
        result1 = a-b;
        if (result1.IsNegative())
            result1 += modulus;
        return result1;
    }
}

Integer& ModularArithmetic::Reduce(Integer &a, const Integer &b) const
{
    if (a.reg_.size()==modulus.reg_.size() && 
        b.reg_.size()==modulus.reg_.size())
    {
        if (TaoCrypt::Subtract(a.reg_.get_buffer(), a.reg_.get_buffer(),
                               b.reg_.get_buffer(), a.reg_.size()))
            TaoCrypt::Add(a.reg_.get_buffer(), a.reg_.get_buffer(),
                          modulus.reg_.get_buffer(), a.reg_.size());
    }
    else
    {
        a-=b;
        if (a.IsNegative())
            a+=modulus;
    }

    return a;
}

const Integer& ModularArithmetic::Inverse(const Integer &a) const
{
    if (!a)
        return a;

    CopyWords(result.reg_.begin(), modulus.reg_.begin(), modulus.reg_.size());
    if (TaoCrypt::Subtract(result.reg_.begin(), result.reg_.begin(),
                           a.reg_.begin(), a.reg_.size()))
        Decrement(result.reg_.begin()+a.reg_.size(), 1,
                  modulus.reg_.size()-a.reg_.size());

    return result;
}

Integer ModularArithmetic::CascadeExponentiate(const Integer &x,
                  const Integer &e1, const Integer &y, const Integer &e2) const
{
    if (modulus.IsOdd())
    {
        MontgomeryRepresentation dr(modulus);
        return dr.ConvertOut(dr.CascadeExponentiate(dr.ConvertIn(x), e1,
                                                    dr.ConvertIn(y), e2));
    }
    else
        return AbstractRing::CascadeExponentiate(x, e1, y, e2);
}

void ModularArithmetic::SimultaneousExponentiate(Integer *results,
        const Integer &base, const Integer *exponents,
        unsigned int exponentsCount) const
{
    if (modulus.IsOdd())
    {
        MontgomeryRepresentation dr(modulus);
        dr.SimultaneousExponentiate(results, dr.ConvertIn(base), exponents,
                                    exponentsCount);
        for (unsigned int i=0; i<exponentsCount; i++)
            results[i] = dr.ConvertOut(results[i]);
    }
    else
        AbstractRing::SimultaneousExponentiate(results, base,
                                                    exponents, exponentsCount);
}


// ********************************************************

#define A0      A
#define A1      (A+N2)
#define B0      B
#define B1      (B+N2)

#define T0      T
#define T1      (T+N2)
#define T2      (T+N)
#define T3      (T+N+N2)

#define R0      R
#define R1      (R+N2)
#define R2      (R+N)
#define R3      (R+N+N2)


inline void MultiplyBottom(word *R, word *T, const word *A, const word *B,
                           unsigned int N)
{
    RecursiveMultiplyBottom(R, T, A, B, N);
}

inline void MultiplyTop(word *R, word *T, const word *L, const word *A,
                        const word *B, unsigned int N)
{
    RecursiveMultiplyTop(R, T, L, A, B, N);
}


// R[N] --- result = X/(2**(WORD_BITS*N)) mod M
// T[3*N] - temporary work space
// X[2*N] - number to be reduced
// M[N] --- modulus
// U[N] --- multiplicative inverse of M mod 2**(WORD_BITS*N)

void MontgomeryReduce(word *R, word *T, const word *X, const word *M,
                      const word *U, unsigned int N)
{
    MultiplyBottom(R, T, X, U, N);
    MultiplyTop(T, T+N, X, R, M, N);
    word borrow = Subtract(T, X+N, T, N);
    // defend against timing attack by doing this Add even when not needed
    word carry = Add(T+N, T, M, N);
    (void)carry;            // shut up compiler
    CopyWords(R, T + (borrow ? N : 0), N);
}

// R[N] ----- result = A inverse mod 2**(WORD_BITS*N)
// T[3*N/2] - temporary work space
// A[N] ----- an odd number as input

void RecursiveInverseModPower2(word *R, word *T, const word *A, unsigned int N)
{
    if (N==2)
    {
        T[0] = AtomicInverseModPower2(A[0]);
        T[1] = 0;
        LowLevel::Multiply2Bottom(T+2, T, A);
        TwosComplement(T+2, 2);
        Increment(T+2, 2, 2);
        LowLevel::Multiply2Bottom(R, T, T+2);
    }
    else
    {
        const unsigned int N2 = N/2;
        RecursiveInverseModPower2(R0, T0, A0, N2);
        T0[0] = 1;
        SetWords(T0+1, 0, N2-1);
        MultiplyTop(R1, T1, T0, R0, A0, N2);
        MultiplyBottom(T0, T1, R0, A1, N2);
        Add(T0, R1, T0, N2);
        TwosComplement(T0, N2);
        MultiplyBottom(R1, T1, R0, T0, N2);
    }
}


#undef A0
#undef A1
#undef B0
#undef B1

#undef T0
#undef T1
#undef T2
#undef T3

#undef R0
#undef R1
#undef R2
#undef R3


// modulus must be odd
MontgomeryRepresentation::MontgomeryRepresentation(const Integer &m)
    : ModularArithmetic(m),
      u((word)0, modulus.reg_.size()),
      workspace(5*modulus.reg_.size())
{
    RecursiveInverseModPower2(u.reg_.get_buffer(), workspace.get_buffer(),
                              modulus.reg_.get_buffer(), modulus.reg_.size());
}

const Integer& MontgomeryRepresentation::Multiply(const Integer &a,
                                                  const Integer &b) const
{
    word *const T = workspace.begin();
    word *const R = result.reg_.begin();
    const unsigned int N = modulus.reg_.size();

    AsymmetricMultiply(T, T+2*N, a.reg_.get_buffer(), a.reg_.size(),
                       b.reg_.get_buffer(), b.reg_.size());
    SetWords(T+a.reg_.size()+b.reg_.size(),0, 2*N-a.reg_.size()-b.reg_.size());
    MontgomeryReduce(R, T+2*N, T, modulus.reg_.get_buffer(),
                     u.reg_.get_buffer(), N);
    return result;
}

const Integer& MontgomeryRepresentation::Square(const Integer &a) const
{
    word *const T = workspace.begin();
    word *const R = result.reg_.begin();
    const unsigned int N = modulus.reg_.size();

    TaoCrypt::Square(T, T+2*N, a.reg_.get_buffer(), a.reg_.size());
    SetWords(T+2*a.reg_.size(), 0, 2*N-2*a.reg_.size());
    MontgomeryReduce(R, T+2*N, T, modulus.reg_.get_buffer(),
                     u.reg_.get_buffer(), N);
    return result;
}

Integer MontgomeryRepresentation::ConvertOut(const Integer &a) const
{
    word *const T = workspace.begin();
    word *const R = result.reg_.begin();
    const unsigned int N = modulus.reg_.size();

    CopyWords(T, a.reg_.get_buffer(), a.reg_.size());
    SetWords(T+a.reg_.size(), 0, 2*N-a.reg_.size());
    MontgomeryReduce(R, T+2*N, T, modulus.reg_.get_buffer(),
                     u.reg_.get_buffer(), N);
    return result;
}

const Integer& MontgomeryRepresentation::MultiplicativeInverse(
                                                        const Integer &a) const
{
//  return (EuclideanMultiplicativeInverse(a, modulus)<<
//      (2*WORD_BITS*modulus.reg_.size()))%modulus;
    word *const T = workspace.begin();
    word *const R = result.reg_.begin();
    const unsigned int N = modulus.reg_.size();

    CopyWords(T, a.reg_.get_buffer(), a.reg_.size());
    SetWords(T+a.reg_.size(), 0, 2*N-a.reg_.size());
    MontgomeryReduce(R, T+2*N, T, modulus.reg_.get_buffer(),
                     u.reg_.get_buffer(), N);
    unsigned k = AlmostInverse(R, T, R, N, modulus.reg_.get_buffer(), N);

//  cout << "k=" << k << " N*32=" << 32*N << endl;

    if (k>N*WORD_BITS)
        DivideByPower2Mod(R, R, k-N*WORD_BITS, modulus.reg_.get_buffer(), N);
    else
        MultiplyByPower2Mod(R, R, N*WORD_BITS-k, modulus.reg_.get_buffer(), N);

    return result;
}


//  mod Root stuff
Integer ModularRoot(const Integer &a, const Integer &dp, const Integer &dq,
                    const Integer &p, const Integer &q, const Integer &u)
{
    Integer p2 = ModularExponentiation((a % p), dp, p);
    Integer q2 = ModularExponentiation((a % q), dq, q);
    return CRT(p2, p, q2, q, u);
}

Integer CRT(const Integer &xp, const Integer &p, const Integer &xq,
            const Integer &q, const Integer &u)
{
    // isn't operator overloading great?
    return p * (u * (xq-xp) % q) + xp;
}


#ifdef HAVE_EXPLICIT_TEMPLATE_INSTANTIATION
#ifndef TAOCRYPT_NATIVE_DWORD_AVAILABLE
template hword DivideThreeWordsByTwo<hword, Word>(hword*, hword, hword, Word*);
#endif
template word DivideThreeWordsByTwo<word, DWord>(word*, word, word, DWord*);
#ifdef SSE2_INTRINSICS_AVAILABLE
template class AlignedAllocator<word>;
#endif
#endif


} // namespace